
WE ARE GOVERNED 
IN VIRGINIA 

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HOW WE ARE GOVERNED 
IN VIRGINIA 



BY 

HOWARD LEE McBAIN, M. A., Ph. D. 

FORMERLY ASSISTANT PRINCIPAL OF THE RICHMOND HIGH SCHOOL 

NOW INSTRUCTOR IN POLITICAL SCIENCE IN THE 

GEORGE WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY 



ILLUSTRATED 



Richmond, Va. 
THE HERMITAGE PRESS 

1908 



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LIBRARY of CONFESS, 
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Copyright, 1908 
By HOWARD LEE McBAIN 



PREFACE 



In the preparation of this brief text to meet the needs of 
pupils in the schools of Virginia at the sixth or seventh 
year of their work, the author has been inspired by a two- 
fold purpose. 

In the first place he has long held the opinion that the 
elementary teaching of so-called "civil government" will 
always be a bugbear and a failure unless its chief purpose 
is to relate the child in an intimate and personal way to the 
activities of government. To the average pupil of less than 
high school age the* powers and the functions of the state 
auditor or the organization of, and proceedure in, the civil 
courts of the state are very dry subjects indeed, and very 
naturally so. But if he lives in a city, he probably takes a 
lively interest in the fire department, in the police, in the 
many things the city undertakes to do for the health of the 
community — things, such as a sewerage system, which he 
knows about but has perhaps never thought to ascribe to 
the government. Or if he lives in the country, he is doubt- 
less vitally interested in what his county is doing to im- 
prove roads or to consolidate schools. It has been the 
conscious purpose of the author in the first half of this 
book to make the child see the government as a real, active 
thing about him, a thing of which he is a part. 

It is only after the pupil's interest has been thoroughly 
aroused to note the many operations of the government 
that the effort is made in the latter half of the book to show 
him how the government is supported, organized and 
operated. This is done in as simple language as possible. 

3 



4 PREFACE 

Here, too, the child mind has been kept constantly in view, 
and emphasis has been laid upon the actual operation of the 
machinery of government rather than upon elaborate de- 
tails of its organization. 

To each chapter are appended questions to be used for 
discussion in class. For the most part they aim to localize 
the text, to draw the pupil's attention to conditions in his 
own community and their bearing on what he has been 
reading, to create a spirit of inquiry and investigation. 

This setting up of a definite relation between the child's 
life within the school and the political activities of com- 
munity life about him is in harmony with the fundamental 
principles of modern educational aims. School life must 
more and more reflect and embody community life. And 
the author believes that this is especially true in the teach- 
ing of government, if w T e are to instill any .principles of good 
citizenship into the minds and hearts of that vast majority 
of our children who leave school before reaching the high 
school age. 

The author desires to express a grateful sense of obliga- 
tion to Doctor J. A. C. Chandler, Editor of the Virginia 
Journal of Education, and to Mr. Lee Bidgood, Professor 
of History and Government in the Virginia Female Normal 
School, both of whom have read the entire proofs and have 
made many helpful suggestions ; and especially to Miss 
Edith A. Winship, of Boston, for invaluable editorial assist- 
ance. Howard Lee McBain. 

The George Washington University, 
Washington, D. C. 



FOREWORD TO THE TEACHER 



In presenting a civil government text drawn along such 
wholly new lines, the author feels that a word of sugges- 
tion to the teacher may not be inappropriate. Teachers 
will probably agree that the subject is inherently difficult to 
teach in the grammar grades. But a subject is not usually 
difficult to teach if the pupil is interested. The arousing 
in the pupil's mind of a spirit of interested inquiry in the 
affairs of government is of far greater value to him than 
the knowledge of many unimportant details of govern- 
mental organization. Formal question-and-answer recita- 
tions should, therefore, be used sparingly. Informal and 
spontaneous discussions of the text and of the questions 
appended will prove far more successful in the class-room. 
It is of transcending importance, however, that the teacher 
first of all be thoroughly familiar with the spirit, the pur- 
pose, and scope of the w r ork. 

It may be impossible in some cases to answer the 
localized questions suggested, but a question which cannot 
be answered, or which can be answered only partially is not 
necessarily without value. It may create both interest and 
investigation. The teacher should encourage the pupils to 
study the questions and to gather all possible information 
in regard to them from their parents and others in the 
community who would be likely to know. The real 
essence our teaching should be the creation of this inter- 
ested attitude of mind toward things political. 

The author has not felt that it was either necessary or 
desirable to append to this work the text of the Virginia 



6 FOREWORD TO THE TEACHER 

Constitution. Our State Constitution has become so de- 
tailed and complicated and has grown to such enormous 
length that for the purposes of an immature pupil it is of 
small value. For personal reference it would perhaps be 
well for the teacher to have a desk copy of the Constitu- 
tion, which can be secured from the office of the Secretary 
of the Commonwealth at Richmond. 

H. L. McB. 



CONTENTS 



CHAPTER PACE 

I. What we mean by Life in a Community . . 9 
II. What the Government does to protect our 

Life and Health 19 

III. What the Government does to protect our 

Property 34 

IV. How our Liberty is protected 13 

V. What the Government does to help us in 

our Desire for Knowledge 50 

VI. What the Government does to promote 

Community Progress 64 

VII. How the Government is supported 8*2 

VIII. What the Constitution is 91 

IX. How the Government is organized. 96 

X. How the Laws are made 99 

XI. How the Laws are put into Operation . . . 107 

XII. How the Laws are explained and applied. 116 

XIII. How the Counties are governed 125 

XIV. How the Cities are governed 132 

XV. Who takes Part in the Government Ill 

XVI. Political Parties 119 

XVII. Virginia and the Nation 153 



HOW WE ARE GOVERNED 
IN VIRGINIA 



CHAPTER I 
WHAT WE MEAN BY LIFE IN A COMMUNITY 

1. What a community is. Most of you have doubtless 
read the fascinating story of Robinson Crusoe. You re- 
member how, after being shipwrecked, he was thrown upon 
a deserted island, and there lived for a time separated from 
all other human beings. Most of you have heard, too, of 
hermits — those strange men who withdraw themselves 
from their fellowmen and live in loneliness and solitude. 
Moved by some odd fancy, they usually seek out a cave or 
a rude hut in the mountains, and there, far away from 
other people, spend their miserable lives. 

How very different are the lives of most of us ! We are 
so accustomed to having our family, our friends, and many 
other people about us that we can only with difficulty 
imagine how anybody could tolerate so lonely a life. 
People are usually found living together in groups; indeed 
this seems to be the natural way for them to live. Some- 
times, as in a city, a great many people are crowded to- 
gether in a comparatively small space. Sometimes we find 
them in small towns and villages. In Virginia, however, 
a majority of the people live on farms. Yet they are close 

9 



IO HOW WE ARE GOVERNED IN VIRGINIA 

enough to one another to enjoy life together and to have 
many interests in common. They have, for instance, com- 
mon churches, common schools, common stores, common 
post-offices. 

Now this is what we mean when we say that people live 
in communities. A community is a group of people living 
more or less closely together and having certain common 
interests. It may be a village or a town, a county or a 
city. 

2. Why people live in community groups. The world is 
probably not large enough for every one of us to live like 
a hermit, completely separated from everybody else. Even 
if it were, most of us would not care for such a life. We 
enjoy being with people. We love to associate with the 
members of our family, our friends, and acquaintances. 
This is one of the reasons, then, why we nearly always find 
people living in community groups. But it is not the only 
reason. 

You doubtless recall what a hard time Robinson Crusoe 
found in providing himself with such simple necessities as 
food and fire and clothing. This was because he was living 
entirely alone. 

Suppose whenever one of us needed a new coat it were 
necessary for us to raise and shear the sheep, prepare the 
wool, weave it into cloth, and then cut and make the coat. 
What an endless amount of trouble, and what a poor look- 
ing coat we should have when it was finished ! As things 
are, one group of men raise the sheep, another group pre- 
pare and dye the wool, and still another group weave the 
wool into cloth. This cloth is carried to stores, where it 
is bought by tailors who make it into coats. When you or 
I desire a coat, we seldom think of sheep or wool or cloth. 
We go either to a tailor or to a shop where we can buy a 



LIFE IN A COMMUNITY II 

coat ready to be worn. Think how many different men 
have had a share in the making of the coat you wear. 

You can readily see from this illustration that our wants 
can be supplied much more easily when we live near other 
people than they could if we lived alone. This, then, is 
another reason why we live in communities. 

Have you ever stopped to think how many desires most 
of us have? All day long in one way or another we are 
busy satisfying our own desires, or else helping other peo- 
ple to satisfy theirs. Of course it is impossible for us to 
enumerate all the desires that any one person has ; but 
there are a few which nearly everybody has. Let us see 
what some of these common desires are. 

3. Our desire for life and health. To most of us life is 
the most precious thing that we possess. A man will 
sometimes sacrifice his life for his honor, or for his coun- 
try's honor, or for some one whom he loves. In general, 
however, he will sacrifice other things to preserve his life. 
In many ways we seek to protect our lives. We must pro- 
tect them, in the first place, against the violence of others, 
and in the second place, against dangers such as result 
from fires, from accidents on the railroad or on the water, 
and in cities from the dangers of the streets. It is neces- 
sary for us also to use the proper precautions against 
disease. This indicates another of our desires — the desire 
for good health, which is closely akin to the desire for life. 
Most of us want a sound body, not only because it 
promises to prolong life, but because a healthy body is 
essential to our general well-being and happiness. 

4. Our desire for liberty. Xo man who lives in a com- 
munity can enjoy liberty without restraint. Robinson 
Crusoe could, indeed, have yielded to the wildest desire 
that might cross his fancy. There was no one to prevent 



12 HOW WE ARE GOVERNED IN VIRGINIA 

his doing anything he wished. But the average man must 
live in his community with some regard to his fellowmen. 
He cannot wholly ignore the rights of others. By liberty 
in a community, therefore, we mean the freedom to do 
what we please so long as we do not come in conflict with 
the rights of other people. We are, of course, absolutely 
free to think what we please, but in our actions we must be 
considerate of others. Most of us are entirely willing, if 
it is necessary, to give up a part of our liberty of action in 
order that w r e may enjoy the other benefits of life in a 
community. 

5. Our desire for wealth. It is natural for everybody to 
want to possess something. Boys and girls like to own 
things, and men and women enjoy no less the pleasure of 
possession. Lands, houses, implements, cattle, horses, fur- 
niture, clothes, books, money — all these are things which 
most of us desire to own. These we call property. Men 
seek to obtain property not only for the pleasure of possess- 
ing it but because of what it enables them to do. The 
ownership of property brings comforts and luxuries, and 
makes it possible also for a man to secure more property. It 
is this desire for wealth and property that causes men to 
seek employment — to become doctors, lawyers, farmers, 
manufacturers, shop-keepers. 

6. Our desire for knowledge. Most of us crave to know 
things. This is an instinct that we have all noticed in very 
young children when they begin to ask questions and in- 
quire into things. When they grow older they are sent to 
school in order that they may learn many things while they 
are young. But we want to know more than what we can 
get out of books. We are interested in learning what is 
going on both in our own community and in other commu- 
nities. We need, therefore, newspapers, letters, telephones, 



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HOW WE ARE GOVERNED IN VIRGINIA 



and telegrams. By these means we satisfy our desire to 
know what is going on in the world. And our desire 
for knowledge helps us to attain many other desires. It 
also helps the community in which we live, for we cannot 
imagine anything more pitiful than a community in which 
nobody has any education and nobody desires it. 

7. Our desire for progress. Most men desire to see the 
community in which they live become progressive. Of 
course this desire for progress takes many forms ; it would 
be impossible to mention all of them. The desire for edu- 
cation, of which we have just spoken, might be included as 
a part of our general desire for progress. The wish to see 
good rocds, strong bridges, and efficient railroads in our 
community ; if we live near the water, the wish to have 
harbors dredged, lighthouses built ; if we live in a city, the 
wish to see beautiful buildings, gardens and parks, clean 
and well-paved streets — these are some of the evidences of 
our desire for community progress. 

8. Our desire for happiness. All these other desires that 
we have been discussing combine to constitute what is our 
chief desire, next to the preservation of our life and 
health — the desire for happiness. It may not be possible 
for us to define what this desire for happiness is. It varies 
in different individuals. Some find happiness by pursuing 
almost exclusively one thing:, as the desire for wealth, or 
for knowledge, or for science, or for art; but the majority 
of us find happiness by pursuing a combination of many 
desires. 

9. The conflict of desires. When people live together in 
a community, it is very natural that their desires should 
sometimes conflict. In his desire for wealth a man may 
seize another's property, or he may commit acts injurious 
to the general health of the community, or offensive to 



LIFE IN A COMMUNITY 1 5 

other people's ideas of cleanliness and beauty. For in- 
stance, a man may maintain a factory in a part of the 
community where the smoke is annoying ; or the factory 
itself may endanger the lives or the health of operators by 
reason of unsanitary conditions. In his desire for unre- 
strained liberty a man may, in a passion, take the life of his 
fellowman, or burn his dwelling. Or again, in the pursuit 
of knowledge or science men may neglect their business 
and make debts which they are unable to pay. 

It must be clear to you that in these cases the desire of 
one individual of the community conflicts with the rights 
or desires of other individuals. It is perhaps equally clear 
that there must be some means for preventing the rights of 
one man from being interfered with by the desires of 
another. There must be rules which the members of the 
community are forced to obey. There must be some 
peaceful way of settling disputes among them, and of 
securing justice to all. Xot only that, but there ought 
also to be some means by which the members of a com- 
munity are helped to attain various desires which they are 
unable to satisfy alone. They should be helped, for in- 
stance, in the protection of their lives and health, and in 
•satisfying their desires for education and for progress. 

10. What the Government is. What is the means by 
which this harmony and assistance are secured? In the 
first place, there must be rules of conduct which the indi- 
vidual must obey — things that he must do and things that 
he must not do. For example, all communities command 
that each man shall respect the lives and property of every 
other man ; and the community will punish any one who 
violates this command. These rules for the conduct of the 
people of the community we call laws. 

In addition to the laws, there must be officers who make 



16 HOW WE ARE GOVERNED IN VIRGINIA 

the laws and others who see that they are enforced. For 
instance, in your own neighborhood there are perhaps a 
board of supervisors, a sheriff, a constable, a justice of the 
peace. Or if you live in a city, there are a mayor, a city 
council, a body of police, and many other officers. 

This body of laws and those who make and enforce them 
are what we generally mean when we speak of the Govern- 
ment. 

You must bear in mind that the Government is estab- 
lished in. order to help the people living in a community. 
Some people have the idea that the Government deprives 
us of our liberty. We are perhaps inclined to feel this 
way when we come in contact with some particular law 
that prevents us from doing what we wish to do, or forces 
us to do what we dislike to do. There was a time, indeed, 
when the Government did trample upon the people's 
liberty, and in some countries this is done even to-day. 
You will recall that the reason why our forefathers freed 
themselves from Great Britain was that the mother country 
tried to oppress the colonies and to interfere with what 
they regarded as their liberties. For the most part, how- 
ever, it is the Government that seeks to protect our liber- 
ties from being interfered with by others, as when the Gov- 
ernment arrests the thief who attempts to steal from us. 
The people of Virginia have declared that "Government 
is, or ought to be, instituted for the common benefit, pro- 
tection and security of the people, the nation, or the com- 
munity. " Not only does the Government protect our 
liberties, but it also undertakes, as we shall see, to assist us 
in reaching certain of our desires and to add to our gen- 
eral welfare and happiness. 

11. Our method of study. In the next few chapters we 
shall see some of the things that the Government in the 



LIFE IN A COMMUNITY 17 

communities of Virginia does for us in the way of protect- 
ing our life and liberty, and helping us to attain certain of 
our desires. (Chapters II to VI.) 

After we have seen something of what the Government 
does for us, we shall then be able to understand more 
clearly how the Government of our State is organized and 
operated, or in other words, how all these things are 
accomplished. (Chapters VII to XVII.) 

QUESTIONS FOR CLASS DISCUSSION 

To the Teacher. The questions appended to each chapter are 
for the purpose of drawing out the pupil's interest in activities of 
government with which he is more or less familiar. These activities 
are, of course, more prominent in city communities than they are 
in the rural districts. The teachers of rural schools should, there- 
fore, explain many of the city activities referred to. The questions 
are intended to be suggestive, not exhaustive. Many others will 
doubtless present themselves to the teacher. 

1. What sort of community do you live in — county, town, village, 
city? Find out, if you can, how many people live in your community. 
In your neighborhood are the houses close together or far apart? 
Think of some of the ways in which you associate with the people 
of your community — when and where, for instance, do you meet 
them? 

2. What are some of the pleasures you enjoy now that you would 
not enjoy if you lived like a hermit? 

3. If you lived absolutely alone, how would you get your food? 
Your clothing? Furniture? How would you protect yourself from 
cold? What, then, are some of the advantages that you enjoy by 
living in a community? 

4. What are some of the things that threaten people's lives in 
your community? Their health? Can you think of anything that 
is done to protect you from these dangers? 

5. Mention some of the restrictions upon your liberty in the 
schoolroom — what are some of the things that you are not per- 
mitted to do? Explain how these things would interfere with the 
rights of others. Why are you forced to consider the rights of 
others? Why are they forced to consider your rights? 



18 HOW WE ARE GOVERNED IN VIRGINIA 

6. Mention some of the property that yon possess in the school- 
room. How does this property help you? Mention some of the 
property owned by the school. How does this property assist you? 

7. Is money property? Why? What business is your father 
engaged in? Why does he engage in business? Mention some of 
the property in your home. To whom does it belong? How was 
he enabled to get it? 

8. Why do you attend school? What desire are you satisfying? 
Mention some of the ways by which you find out what is going on 
in the world. 

9. Who makes the rules of your school? Who enforces them? 
Could you speak of the Government of your school? What would 
you mean? 

10. What- do you mean by the Government of a community? 
Why is it necessary? Mention all the laws of your community that 
you have ever heard of. Mention all the officers that you can 
think of. 



CHAPTER II 

WHAT THE GOVERNMENT DOES TO PROTECT 
OUR LIVES AXD HEALTH 

12. Our personal responsibility, We have seen that 

among all the desires that men usually have there is none 
more powerful than the desire for life. Now in most cases, 
as you all know, it is we ourselves who are personally re- 
sponsible for the preservation of our own life and health. 
If we would keep our bodies in healthful condition, we 
must be mindful of the ordinary laws of health. We must 
take due precaution against disease. We must have plenty 
of fresh air and exercise. 'Moreover, we must refrain from 
recklessly running into dangers that we could avoid. 

In the care of our health the family also is to some ex- 
tent responsible. The home should be selected in a 
healthful location. It should be well ventilated, and the 
plumbing should be good. The housekeeper, too, should 
be careful of cleanliness. It is the duty of the family 
within their means to see that the home is maintained in 
such a manner as to insure the health of those who live 
in it. 

In many cases, however, neither the individual nor the 
family can ward off the dangers which sometimes threaten 
life and health. It is here that the Government steps in to 
assist us. Especially is this true in communities where a 
large number of people live together as they do in cities, 
for in such communities the dangers to life and health are 
far more numerous than they are in the country districts. 

19 



20 HOW WE ARE GOVERNED IN VIRGINIA 

13. Protection of life against personal attacks. One 
person is sometimes attacked by another because of some 
personal grievance. The Government of course makes 
such an attack unlawful and provides for the arrest and 
punishment of the offender. Special officers are appointed 
to protect the members of the community against such 
attacks upon their lives. In the counties we find consta- 
bles and sheriffs, and in the cities there are police, whose 
duty it is not only to prevent such attacks whenever possi- 
ble, but to seek out and arrest those who have been guilty 
of them. The Government also makes it unlawful for one 
man to threaten the life of another even though he may 
not actually make an attack upon him. 

Now you may ask : " How does this protect our lives ? 
It rarely happens that an officer of the law is on hand to 
prevent an attack which is about to be made. May not a 
man's life be taken before the law can protect him?" You 
must remember, however, that in every case the one who 
breaks the law knows that in all probability he will be 
arrested and punished. It is the fear of this punishment 
that prevents him from any rashness to which his impulses 
or his violent temper may prompt him. 

In spite of this fear of punishment for his misdeeds, a 
man fails sometimes to control his anger. He makes a 
sudden attack upon another individual who has offended 
him. There is no time or opportunity to call upon the 
police or the constable. The one who is attacked must act 
for himself. In such cases the law provides that the per- 
son attacked may defend himself. He may even take the 
life of the one who has attacked him if that becomes neces- 
sary in order to preserve his own life. He may afterwards 
be arrested and tried, under such circumstances, for having 
killed his fellowman, but if he is able to show that he was 



PROTECTION OF LIFE AND HEALTH 21 

compelled to do this in order to protect his own life, he is 
freed from all responsibility. 

Protection is given also to a person accused of crime. 
When an individual is arrested for an offense which he is 
supposed to have committed, it may not always be certain 
that he is actually guilty. The law asssumes that every 
man is innocent until it has been proved that he is guilty. 
It says too that "no man shall be deprived of his life or 
liberty, save by the law of the land, or the judgment of his 
peers." The accused must be given, therefore, a fair trial 
in accordance with the law ; and the law lays down certain 
things which are necessary to make the trial a fair one. In 
the first place, the prisoner cannot be kept in jail indefinitely 
awaiting his trial. He has the right to demand that he be 
carried immediately before some officer of the law, and that 
he be shown the reason for his being kept in prison. If it 
appears that there is reasonable ground for suspecting him, 
he is then held until he can be brought forward for trial. 

When the law says that he can be deprived of his life 
only by "the judgment of his peers," it means to grant the 
individual what is ordinarily called the right of trial oy 
jury. This is the right to have a number of his fellow 
citizens, usually twelve, determine whether he is or is not 
guilty of the offense of which he is accused. Those who 
are called to tell what they know about the circumstances 
of his case are known as witnesses. The law gives the 
prisoner the right to have these witnesses stand before him 
and tell what they know in his presence. He has the right 
also to bring witnesses of his own. 

These are only a few of the many provisions which the 
law makes for the protection of the life and liberty of 
those unfortunate individuals who are accused of crime. 
But you can easily see how important they are. Without 



22 



HOW WE ARE GOVERNED IN VIRGINIA 



them cases would arise every day in which the innocent 
would be made to suffer unjustly. 

14. Protection of life against accident: in the country. 

Many accidents happen to most of us in the course of a 
lifetime. For some of these we have to thank only our 
own carelessness. The Government cannot usually be ex- 
pected to protect us from accidents that result from run- 



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A Triple Railroad Crossing 

This unusual and costly method of preventing accidents is employed 

at a point where three different railroads cross in the 

city of Richmond, Virginia. 

aways, falling, and drowning. These are dangers from 
which we must protect ourselves. In some ways, however, 
the Government does seek to protect us from accident. 
You of course know that it is the custom in your com- 
munity for drivers to keep to the right of the road. You 
may not know, however, that the Government actually re- 



PROTECTION OF LIFE AND HEALTH 23 

quires this by law in order that accidents may be prevented. 
Another protection which the Government affords is that 
against railroads. To avoid collisions the Government 
regulates the manner in which one railroad shall cross 
another. The railway companies are required to place 
signals and sometimes gates where the tracks cross a coun- 
try road or a village street. Sometimes the railroad is 
even compelled to fence its tracks. It is customary also 
to regulate the speed of trains when they pass points at 
which accidents are liable to occur. Moreover the Govern- 
ment makes the railroads responsible for injuries done to 
employees. This is a most important protection, for rail- 
roads employ many hundreds of workmen, and the opera- 
tions in which these workmen are engaged are necessarily 
of a dangerous character. Similar responsibility is placed 
upon other companies employing large numbers of work- 
men. 

15. Protection of life against accident: on the water. 
The Government also makes many laws to protect the lives 
of those who spend much of their time upon the water. 
It regulates, for instance, the manner in which boats shall 
pass each other ; it provides that they shall signal each 
other by whistling and requires that they shall carry cer- 
tain lights at night. On the seacoast where there is danger 
of shipwreck, the Government erects lighthouses to warn 
the seaman of his danger and provides life-saving stations, 
with crews of sturdy men ready at any time to assist ves- 
sels in distress. 

16. Protection of life against accident: in the city. It is 
easy to see why the liability to accident should be much 
greater in the city than it is in the country. Where so 
many people are gathered together in one place, where the 
buildings are large and crowded close to one another, 



^4 



HOW WE ARE GOVERNED IN VIRGINIA 



where everybody must of necessity pass through the streets 
filled with rapidly moving street cars and vehicles of all 
kinds, it is natural enough that dangers of one kind or 
another should frequently arise. It is in the cities, there- 
fore, that the Government is forced to provide most often 
for our protection against accident. 




The Lighthouses at Cape Henry 

In the centre of the picture stands the new tower, the light from which 

may be seen many miles out at sea. To the left the apparatus of 

the United States wireless telegraph station is shown. 



One of the dangers which constantly threaten people 
living in cities is that which results from fires. The 
Government seeks to lessen this danger by providing that 
large buildings shall have fire-escapes in order that the oc- 
cupants of the building, in case of fire, may be able to 
reach the ground. In public buildings, like theatres, where 
large numbers of people come together, it is required that 
a sufficient number of exits shall be provided so that the 
people may quickly gain the streets in time of danger. In 



PROTECTION OF LIFE AND HEALTH 25 

many places the children in school are required to practice 
fire drills, in order that, whenever it is necessary, they can 
be taken from the school building rapidly and without con- 
tusion. 

Other protections, too, are given to buildings. Eleva- 
tors are inspected to see that their machinery is in proper 
order. Inspectors are appointed to see that buildings be- 
ing erected in the city are sufficiently well built to prevent 
collapses, such as have sometimes occurred. 

In the streets the attempt is made to regulate the speed 
of street cars, automobiles, and horses, in order that acci- 
dents may be prevented. Excavations and obstructions, 
which are sometimes of necessity placed in the streets, have 
to be marked by lights at night. And not the least of the 
means employed by the Government to prevent accident 
is the provision of lighting the streets at night by gas or 
electricity. Thus you see that in many, many ways the 
Government throws out its strong arms to protect us from 
accidents over which we ourselves could have no control. 

In addition to all these precautions that are taken to 
prevent accidents, most cities provide means for the imme- 
diate treatment of those who are injured. Ambulances in 
charge of skilled surgeons stand ready to hasten to any 
part of the city where an accident has occurred. There is 
usually a public hospital also where sick and injured per- 
who are unable to pay may receive treatment at the 
expense of the Government. 

17. Protection of the poor. In still another way does the 
Government throw its protection around the life of the indi- 
vidual. When a man's health and strength have failed, 
when he is without friends or relatives to support him. he 
finds that the Government has made provision for his 
care. Formerly this protection of the poor was given by 



26 HOW WE ARE GOVERNED IN VIRGINIA 

the churches, which still do a great deal toward helping 
those unable to help themselves. In modern times, how- 
ever, this has come to be considered as one of the duties of 
the Government. We find poorhouses, therefore, in every 
county and city, and officers are appointed whose duty it 
is to see that these unfortunates in the community are pro- 
vided for. 

18. Protection of aged soldiers. In Virginia the Govern- 
ment also provides for those soldiers who fought in the 
War between the States, and who, by reason of their dis- 
ablement or their losses as a. result of the war, are unable to 
care for themselves. These venerable men gave gladly of 
their youthful vigor and stood ready at a time of great 
need to sacrifice their lives in the service of their State. 
In many cases they lost their all in their country's cause. 
It is no more than right and just, therefore, that the 
Government should provide for them during the last days 
of their lives. 

19. Protection of life in times of riot. Occasionally 
there arises in a community so serious a conflict of interests 
that the officers of the community are unable to preserve 
order. This frequently occurs during strikes, when some 
of the strikers and the rowdy element of the community 
become a mob and attempt to prevent the ordinary conduct 
of business. 

It sometimes happens, too, that the people of a com- 
munity are incensed over some crime that has been com- 
mitted. They gather together and desire to punish the 
supposed criminal themselves, without permitting him to 
be tried and punished by law. In such cases it often hap- 
pens that the police, the constables, and the sheriff — the 
officers who ordinarily preserve order — are unable to han- 
dle the situation. Life and property may both be seriously 



PROTECTION OF LIFE AND HEALTH 27 

endangered. There must be means for protection, and the 
Government provides it through the militia of the State. 

In theory the militia of the State is composed of all able- 
bodied men between the ages of eighteen and forty-five 
years. In truth, however, the militia consists of companies 
of men who volunteer for service in the various communi- 
ties of the State. The Governor is commander-in-chief 
of the militia. He is empowered by law to call the troops 
out in emergencies of this kind in order to enforce the laws. 
It is in this way that the Government safeguards the lives 
of the people in situations so dangerous that they cannot be 
dealt with by the local authorities. 

20. Protection of our health. In case we are taken with 
serious illness it is necessary for us to have the proper 
medical treatment. You can readily see the dangers that 
would arise if any one who wanted to become a phy- 
sician or a pharmacist were permitted to do so. Ignorant 
men, claiming to be physicians, would be constantly pre- 
scribing for those who were in need of trained assistance. 
Deaths without number would result. In order to provide 
against such a miserable state of affairs, the Government 
prescribes that before a man can practice medicine he must 
pass certain examinations to prove his knowledge and 
ability. 

The use of intoxicating liquors is today recognized to 
be dangerous to the health of those who use them to ex- 
cess. Moreover, saloons are hurtful to the morals of the 
community. So peculiar a vice is the liquor habit that in 
many cases the individual cannot be trusted to regulate it. 
For a long time the Government has undertaken, in the 
interests of the health of the community, to control the 
sale of liquors to some extent. In the first place, large 
taxes are placed upon the manufacture of liquor ; and in 



28 HOW WE ARE GOVERNED h\ VIRGINIA 

the second place, those who retail it are required to pay 
large fees to the Government. This makes the liquor ex- 
pensive and in consequence lessens the sale of it. More 
recently, however, the Government of Virginia has under- 
taken much greater control over the sale of intoxicating 
liquors. Each community — county, town, or city — is per- 
mitted to decide for itself whether liquor shall be sold 
within its limits. This is a more effective means of control. 
The result has been that in the last few years the majority 
of the counties of Virginia and some of the cities have 
prohibited the sale of intoxicating liquors. 

In another respect the Government has found it neces- 
sary to interfere in behalf of our health. Laws are made 
to protect us against unwholesome food being offered for 
sale. When foodstuffs are shipped in large quantities, the 
shippers cannot always be depended upon to consider the 
health of those who eat their products. Vegetables and 
meats often become stale and unwholesome before they 
are sold. Milk is often tampered with, chemicals being 
added to preserve it from souring.. The health of the com- 
munity is seriously endangered by such inconsiderate acts ; 
for we ourselves are often unable to detect the unwhole- 
someness of the food we are eating. The Government 
steps in to help us by appointing officers whose duty it is 
to inspect various food-products that are offered to the 
people of the community. 

Most of our canned meats are shipped from Chicago and the 
middle West. Recent investigations showed that the great pack- 
ing-houses having in charge the preparation of these meats had 
been very careless in regard to cleanliness and other protections 
which should have been used to prevent disease. Our national 
Government at Washington took the matter up, believing that it 
was something that concerned the whole nation. A law' was passed 



PROTECTION OF LIFE AND HEALTH 



29 



providing for government inspectors for the packing-houses, and no 
canned meats can be sold to-day unless they are labeled by these 
inspectors. 

21. Protection of health in towns and cities. Just as 
densely settled communities increase the liability to acci- 
dent, so they increase also the danger to the health of those 
who live in them. In towns and cities, therefore, it be- 
comes the duty of the Government to make special pro- 




A City Dump 

Where the ashes and dry refuse from the homes of a Virginia city are 

dumped on the outskirts of the city. Garbage is usually burned. 

visions for the proper protection of the health of the com- 
munity. Streets must be kept clean. Dirt, refuse, and 
garbage must be carted away from the homes of the com- 
munity. Contagious diseases in these communities would 
naturally spread rapidly from one person to another if the 
Government did not exercise prompt control over the 
homes of those who are so unfortunate as to contract such 
diseases. They must be rigidly quarantined — that is, well 



3° 



HOW WE ARE GOVERNED IN VIRGINIA 



persons must be prevented from entering- the house while 
the disease lasts. When the sickness is ended, the Govern- 
ment requires that the premises shall be thoroughly dis- 
infected. In cases of malignant diseases, like small-pox, 
the sick person is often taken to a hospital provided for that 
purpose. The requirement that school children shall be 
vaccinated is another precaution that is taken to prevent 
the spreading of disease. 

22. Dangers to health in drinking water. In modern 
times many diseases have been traced to impure drinking 
water. In the erection of buildings in his barnyard the 
farmer is not always careful to protect his well from impuri- 
ties. Sometimes the stable-barn is built on high p-^r-nd 
and the well is sunk in lower ground. The result s the 
the filth and refuse from the stable drain toward the well; 
its water becomes affected with unwholesome germs, and 
diseases are spread. Too much care cannot be taken in 
choosing the site for a well. 

In cities the old method of securing drinking water from 
wells has long since been abolished. It was impossible 
for each of the many hundreds of houses to have its own 
well ; besides, it was too inconvenient. In all of the larger 
cities of Virginia the Government has undertaken to supply 
the community with water through pipes and mains laid 
beneath the streets. Particular care has to be taken in 
choosing a pure source from which the drinking water is 
to be supplied. Seacoast towns find this matter especially 
difficult by reason of the fact that the water around them 
is mostly salt water. The water supplied to the inhabi- 
tants of Norfolk is secured from a fresh-water lake and is 
purified by being pumped through filters. In Richmond 
there has been recently constructed a settling basin in which 
the muddy water of the James River, from which Rich- 



PROTECTION OF LIFE AND HEALTH 



31 



mond's water supply is drawn, is cleared before it is 
pumped into the reservoirs. 

23. Summary. We thus see in how many ways the 
Government is daily protecting our lives and health. Many 
of these things we have scarcely thought to ascribe to the 
Government. We are so used to them that we do not 




The Settling Basix near Richmond 

Here the muddy water of the James River is cleared before 

being pumped into the city reservoir. 

think much about them. We do not often stop to consider, 
for instance, when we go into an elevator or a theater, that 
the Government has afforded us a certain degree of pro- 
tection against accident. When we see the street cleaners 
busy about us, and the lamp lighters going their rounds at 
twilight, it does not often occur to us that they are furnish- 
ing us with protection. As we sit down to our tables, we 



32 HOW WE ARE GOVERNED IN VIRGINIA 

do not frequently remember that much of the food before 
us has been inspected by Government officers in order 
that its wholesomeness may be assured. These are only a 
few instances, as we have seen, in which we are shielded 
by the Government from many attacks that might other- 
wise be made upon our lives and health. 

QUESTIONS FOR CLASS DISCUSSION 

1. What means, if any, are provided in your school for the pro- 
tection of the lives of the teachers and pupils? Are there fire- 
escapes? Are there broad staircases? Are there sufficient exits? 
Do you have fire drills? 

2. What means are provided for the protection of health?, How 
is your schoolroom ventilated, and why? How is it heated? Is 
it well lighted? Do the school authorities require you to be 
vaccinated? Where does your drinking water come from? When 
are children prevented from attending school on account of disease? 
Who prevents them, and why? 

3. If you live near a railroad, do you know of any precautions 
that are taken to prevent accidents? If you live near the water, 
what precautions do you know of there? 

4. If you live in a city, do you know of any precautions that are 
taken to prevent accidents by fire in public buildings? To prevent 
accidents in the streets? How are your city streets lighted, and 
why? Who owns the lighting plant? 

5. Find out what provision is made in your community for the 
care of the poor. Who supports the poorhouse? 

6. Is there a militia company organized in your community? Do 
you know of any time that it has been called into active service? 
If so, when and why? Do you know any of its officers? 

7. Suppose a man commits a crime in your community, who 
would ordinarily arrest him? Where would he be taken? What 
rights would he have? Would he have to prove his innocence? 

8. Does your community prohibit the sale of intoxicating liquors? 
If so. why? 

9. Have you ever noticed an inspector's label on canned meats? 
Is milk inspected in your city? Are meats and vegetables inspected? 



PROTECTION OF LIFE AND HEALTH 



33 



10. What measures does your city take to make the community 
more healthful? Is there a sewerage system? Are the streets kept 
clean? Are contagious diseases quarantined? What about the 
drinking water? The garbage? 

ii. Who is responsible for all these protections of life and health? 
Could you as an individual protect yourself in these things without 
the assistance of the Government? 



CHAPTER III 

WHAT THE GOVERNMENT DOES TO PROTECT 
OUR PROPERTY 

24. The ownership of property. When we were discuss- 
ing the individual's desire for wealth, we saw that wealth 
consists largely in things we call property. (See page 12.) 
Some of this property we use simply to satisfy our needs 
and comforts. A large part of it we use in business enter- 
prises in order that we may get together more property 
and thus increase our wealth. In all civilized communi- 
ties people enjoy the right of owning property. 

In early history when people lived in tribes, as the American 
Indians once lived, they moved about from place to place without 
having any definite homes. Under such conditions it was impossible 
for them to own much property. They did not value the land because 
they did not know how to till the soil and raise crops. They 
secured food by hunting and fishing. In later times tribes began 
to settle on some particular tract of land, which was owned in 
common by the whole people of the tribal community. The dif- 
ferent crops they raised were put together and were then distributed 
among the members of the tribe in accordance with their needs. 
The farm lands in Russia today are held in this manner by the 
whole people of a village. 

In most civilized countries in modern times the land is 
held by the individual members of the community and not 
by the community as a whole. This results in many advan- 
tages, for each individual who owns a portion of the land 
feels a personal attachment to the community. He takes 

34 



PROTECTION OF PROPERTY 



35 



an interest in its welfare because his own life is bound so 
closely to the life of the community. Communities, there- 
fore, become more permanent in their character. It is for 
this reason that the Government not only recognizes the 
right of the individual to own land but even encourages him 
by protecting him in his possession. 

25. Our duty to protect our own property. It is our duty 
both to ourselves and to our community to protect the 
property we possess. This we can do by carefully attend- 



. 




":l 


*g 






in 


fl ! i SI ' 






HEiliilt 




..«.;' ' ' » 




i^^HIHIHMiHBHBHHBBE 


fei'iiii-'iijiiiiiUiiiiL? 


-—- 




; ^xk.<^ki^£j^ 



A Squad of City Police 



ing to our own business afifairs, and sometimes by person- 
ally defending our property from attacks made upon it by 
others. It is clear, however, that we cannot always do this. 
We may lack the power or influence necessary to main- 
tain our rights. In such instances it becomes necessary 
for the Government to step in and protect us. The means 
bv which the Government does this constitutes a very 



36 HOW WE ARE GOVERNED IN VIRGINIA 

complicated system of laws framed in order to meet every 
possible conflict that might arise between individuals. This 
is a subject proper for the study only of lawyers and judges. 
It is easy for us, however, to see many of the simpler ways 
in which the Government protects us in the property we 
possess. 

26. Protection of property against robbery. There are 
unfortunately in every community a few people of bad 
moral character who have no regard for the property rights 
of their fellowmen. They desire wealth for themselves, and 
not being able or willing to secure it by honest means, 
they try to steal property that belongs to some one else. 
i Just as it is the duty of constables and police to protect the 
lives of the members of a community, so it is also their 
duty to protect property from thieves. In cities police 
patrol the streets constantly, in order to fulfill both of these 
duties. The lighting of the streets by night, which we 
saw was a protection to the lives of citizens, serves also to 
assist the police in the prevention of robberies that might 
otherwise be committed in the darkness. 

In spite of this constant watchfulness on the part of 
officers of the Government, property is sometimes taken. 
The Government then puts forth every effort to seek out 
the guilty party and arrest him. You must not think that 
thefts are confined to the lower element of people living 
in the community. Sometimes men in high positions of 
trust, as for instance officers of a bank, yield to the tempta- 
tion to steal the money which they have in their care. 
These men are no better than the worst of common thieves ; 
in fact their guilt is even greater because they have usually 
had better opportunities and better training than the ordi- 
nary criminal. 



PROTECTION OF PROPERTY 37 

27. Protection of property against fire. It is impossible 
for the individual members of a community to protect their 
property in any sure manner from destruction by fire. 
They must, of course, use due precaution to prevent the 
starting of fires. Something, too they can do when build- 
ings are being erected, for many fires are caused by reason 
of the poor construction of buildings. It is usual for the 
Government, however, to undertake to protect property 




Engines at Work at a Large City Fire 

against loss by fire. This is naturally impossible in coun- 
try districts where the houses are widely separated. It is 
only in towns and cities that the Government can accom- 
plish anything in this direction. 

In small towns and villages there is generally a volun- 
teer force of firemen. Sometimes the only equipment 
they have is a number of water buckets which have to be 
passed from hand to hand along a file of men. 



38 HOW WE ARE GOVERNED IN VIRGINIA 

In cities there are regularly organized fire departments 
with fire engines, hose, and hook-and-ladder wagons, ready 
at a moment's call to hasten to any part of the city where 

a fire has started and property is threatened. At various 
points in the city are placed call boxes, from which an alarm 
can be sent over the electric wire to the central office of 
the department. Each box has its number, and bells, ring- 
ing the number of the box, indicate in what part of the 
city the fire is located. On frequent corners there are plugs 
to which the hose can be attached, and from which an 
abundant supply of water is secured through mains and 
pipes laid beneath the streets. Strong and courageous 
men, regularly employed for this purpose, hurry to the 
scene of the fire. These firemen are often called upon to 
risk their own lives in the rescue of people from a burning 
building, or in preventing the spread of the fire. In Rich- 
mond the fire department consists of ten steam engines, 
eight combination chemical wagons, three hook-and-ladder 
trucks, and two hose wagons, as well as engines and wagons 
held in reserve. The corps of firemen consists of a hun- 
dred and forty-seven officers and men. The police also are 
called upon to assist at fires by keeping back the crowds 
which gather and by preventing reckless people from endan- 
gering their lives. 

28. Protection of landed property. Disputes frequently 
arise over the question as to who is the rightful owner of a 
piece of land. If the Government did not provide some 
means for protecting landowners, these disputes would be 
much more frequent than they are. . In Virginia every 
piece of land owned by an individual must be registered at 
an office provided by the Government. Whenever such a 
piece of property is transferred from one person to another, 
either by sale or by gift, the transfer must be recorded. 



PROTECTION OF PROPERTY 



39 



Usually a lawyer is employed in such cases to look up the 
whole history of the piece of land and to trace its num- 
erous transfers. The owner then feels secure in his pos- 
session, for no one else will ever be able to claim the prop- 
erty by reason of its having been improperly transferred. 
This is called securing a clear title to the property. 

29. Protection of homes. Sometimes a man is very un- 
fortunate in his business! He may make serious mis- 
takes, or by poor investments he may lose a great deal of 
money. As a result he finds himself heavily burdened with 
debts that he is unable to pay. His creditors begin to 
press him for settlement, and he stands in danger of hav- 
ing everything he possesses sold at auction, and himself 
and his family left in abject poverty. The Government 
realizes that many men are brought to this position through 
no direct fault of their own. It realizes, too, that if the 
man is made a pauper, especially if he is advanced in 
years, it will be impossible for him to recover himself. 
The Government therefore provides that an amount of his 
property not exceeding $2,000 shall be reserved to him. 
This protection is known as the homestead exemption. In 
addition the law provides that a man may retain one horse, 
one cow, and a certain amount of his furniture. 

Some men are unwilling to take advantage of this 
reserve offered by the Government. This is a duty, how- 
ever, that a man owes to his family. Usually it should be 
gladly accepted, not only because it keeps his family from 
want, but because it gives him the opportunity to get into 
business again, to rebuild his broken fortunes, and per- 
haps to pay his debts in full. 

30. Government control over property. In general we 
may do what we please with our property so long as we do 
not interfere with the rights of other people. In case our 



4 o HOW WE ARE GOVERNED IN VIRGINIA 

property is a piece of land, we may erect buildings on it; 
or we may dig beneath it ; and if we find minerals, or coal, 
or oil, these things belong to us. When the interests of the 
community, however, conflict with our own desires, the 
Government places certain restrictions upon us in the use 
of our land. In country districts, for instance, the Govern- 
ment usually requires that farms shall be fenced in, in 
order that cattle may not stray around and injure other 
people's property. 

In towns and cities various restrictions are placed upon 
the use of property. The Government may determine the 
height of a building, or it may prevent a wooden structure 
from being placed in the heart of the city. It will not per- 
mit the owner of a piece of property in the residence part 
of the city to build on his property a factory or any un- 
sightly building. It usually requires the property owner 
also to keep the sidewalks bordering his property free from 
snow and ice. 

In some cases the Government may even take our prop- 
erty entirely from us. It may seem advisable, for instance, 
to open a road or street through the property we own ; or 
the Government may desire to construct a park, or put 
up a school or other public building on our property. 
Frequently the owner is willing to sell such property to the 
Government for a reasonable amount. But in many cases 
terms cannot be agreed upon, or the owner may not wish 
to sell at any price. The Government thereupon takes the 
property away from him. The law provides, however, that 
in no case shall this be done without just compensation 
being paid to the individual for his loss. This power of the 
Government to take a man's property from him is called 
the power of eminent domain. 

The Government usually confers this power upon rail- 



PROTECTION OF PROPERTY 41 

roads. It is absolutely necessary that railroads should be 
given the right of way over all property. While the indi- 
vidual whose property the railroad takes should be fully 
paid, he must nevertheless be prevented from charging an 
unreasonable price for it. 

In one other important instance the Government takes 
the individual's property from him — and that, without any 
direct compensation in money. This, however, brings up 
the whole question of taxation, a subject which will be re- 
served for a later chapter. (See chapter VII.) 
r-^Sl. Property owned by the Government. In every com- 
munity the Government owns some of the property. Rivers, 
most of the roads, and many of the bridges are the property 
only of the Government. In cities the Government owns 
the streets, alleys, and parks — those portions of the prop- 
erty that are used by all the members of the community in 
common. The Government must own public buildings 
also, such as the State Capitol at Richmond, the county 
court-houses, city and town halls, public schools, public 
libraries, post-offices, prisons, and poorhouses. 

32. Summary. We have discussed here only in brief 
outline what the Government does to protect us in the pos- 
session of our property. As we stated in the beginning, 
the whole system of governmental protection of property 
is very complicated. Now it may seem to you from what 
has been said that the Government undertakes in many 
instances to interfere with us in the use of our property. 
There are restrictions in regard to this, and restrictions 
in regard to that. In every instance, however, where the 
Government has seen fit to control us in the enjoyment of 
our property, it is because the interests of the community 
have demanded it. 



, 4 2 HOW WE ARE GOVERNED IN VIRGINIA 



QUESTIONS FOR CLASS DISCUSSION 

i. What do we mean by property? What property do you use 
in school? What part of it belongs to j'ou? What part belongs to 
the school? Who supplies this school property? Are you pro- 
tected in the possession of your books and pencils? Who protects 
you ? 

2. Tell what you know of the life of the American Indians in 
^arly times. What kind of property did they have? Why did 
they not own land? 

3. Who owns the land in your community? How may one man 
transfer a piece of land to another? In case of dispute over the 
ownership of a piece of land, who settles it? 

4. What means does your community afford for protection against 
burglaries? Who arrests the burglar and what is done with him? 

"Why do police patrol the city streets? Why are streets lighted? 
Why is there no patrol in the country districts? How is the police 
force organized? 

5. Find out what you can about the fire department in your com- 
munity. What is its purpose? Who supports it? Have you ever 
seen a large fire? How is an alarm turned in? Explain how the 
department operates. Why are there no fire departments in the 
country districts? 

6. What property does the Government own in your community? 
How did the government get it? Why is this property owned by 
the Government? 

7. Do you ever remember a road or street being opened in your 
community across some man's property? Or do you ever remem- 
ber a schoolhouse or other public building being built on some 
man's property? If you do not know of any such instance, per- 
haps your parents or teacher can tell you of one. Who opened 
this road or street? Or who built this building? How did the 
Government get the property? Was the former owner justly paid? 
What is this power of the Government to take property called? 



CHAPTER IV 

HOW OUR LIBERTY IS PROTECTED 

33. What liberty in a community means. When in the 
first chapter we were discussing our desire for liberty 
(see page u), we saw that liberty in a community does 
not mean the right to do anything we please. The rights 
of others must be considered. If everybody were free to 
dcpwhat he liked at any time, there would be no law and 
order, no peace and safety, no protection for our lives and 
property. 

Now it may seem to you that the Government, with all 
its laws and regulations and its officers appointed to carry 
them out, really deprives us of our liberty in many ways. 
This is quite true. But suppose the Government did not 
exist. It is easy to see that the most powerful man would 
exercise his liberty without regard to those about him, 
especially if he happened to be a man of evil character. It 
is necessary for us to have laws and Government in order 
to prevent the strong from oppressing the weak. It is thus 
by restricting the liberty of everybody to some extent that 
the liberty of all is secured. 

34. How the Government itself is restricted. You must 
not think, however, that the Government can in every case 
make whatever laws it pleases. It cannot always pass laws 
that place restrictions upon our liberties. The people of 
Virginia, like the people in all the States of the Union, lay 
down certain limits in which the Government may act. 
They determine what powers the Government may exercise 

43 



44 



HOW WE ARE GOVERNED IN VIRGINIA 



and prescribe certain things which the Government itself 
may not do. 1 We saw, for example, that the Government 
may not in any case take our property by its right of 
eminent domain without paying us a just amount for it. 
Again, when we were discussing the case of a man brought 
to trial for his life, we saw that there are certain rights 
which the Government has to respect. It has to give him 
a trial by jury and an opportunity to defend himself in a 
fair and open court. More often, however, it is not a 
man's life which is at stake in such a trial but his liberty. 
He is in danger of being thrown into prison for the offense 
of which he is accused. In such cases the prisoner usually 
has the same rights that he would have if he were on trial 
for his life. In many other ways too the people place 
restrictions upon the powers of the Government so that it 
may not be able to interfere with the individual's liberty. 

35. Protection of our freedom of speech. In some coun- 
tries today, as for instance in Russia, people have to be 
very careful what they say about the Government. News- 
papers are prohibited from publishing articles criticising 
the Government; an officer called a censor is appointed to 
examine every article of news that they propose to publish. 
The object of this is to keep the people ignorant of what 
the Government is doing. Even in countries much better 
governed than Russia, as for instance in Germany, the 
individual has to be very careful what he says about the 
Sovereign. In Virginia, however, and indeed throughout 
the United States, there is no suppression of news in re- 



^This is accomplished by what is known as a Constitution. The 
Constitution is drawn up by representatives chosen by the people, 
It limits the powers of the Government to interfere with certain 
of our liberties, and the Government itself has no power to change 
the Constitution. See chapter VIII. 



PROTECTION OF LIBERTY 45 

gard to the Government. Anybody may say what he 
pleases about the affairs of the Government. 

Why is such liberty permitted in America? It is because 
we believe that the more the people know about the Govern- 
ment the better Government we shall have. It is neces- 
sary, therefore, that the people be permitted to discuss 
the actions of the Government very freely. Sometimes 
bad officers get control of the Government. It is right 
that the people should know of this. On the other hand, 
good officers and good laws are sometimes condemned, 
and- the liberty that we as a people enjoy in this respect is 
dtmsed. This is, of course, unfortunate. But even though 
this liberty of speech is sometimes abused, it would be far 
worse if we were kept in ignorance of what the officers of 
the Government are doing. 

During the second administration of President Washington and 
the administration of his successor, John Adams, the newspapers 
of the country became very violent and abusive in their attacks 
upon the national Government. Congress sought to put a stop to 
this annoyance. They passed a law for the punishment of those 
who published scandalous articles about the Government. This 
was regarded at the time as a serious interference with the liberty 
of the people. It was questionable whether Congress had the power 
to pass such an act. Both James Madison and Thomas Jefferson, 
in the famous Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions, expressed their 
hearty disapproval. The law remained in force only three years, 
and no attempt has ever since been made by the national Govern- 
ment to pass a law restricting the freedom of speech. 

While we are secure in our right to discuss the Govern- 
ment whenever we please, we may not, however, say what- 
ever we choose about our fellowmen. Suppose one man 
could say whatever he desired about another without any 
fear of punishment. It would often happen that stories 



46 HOW WE ARE GOVERNED IN VIRGINIA 

would be told and published that would seriously hurt an 
innocent man's reputation or business. Indeed this is 
sometimes done. Whenever a person can prove in court 
that he has been slandered by another, the law provides 
that his slanderer shall pay him a sum of money equal to 
the loss that he has sustained. This, of course, is not 
always sufficient to protect him, for it is difficult to measure 
a man's reputation in money. It is sufficient, however, in 
many cases to prevent men from making malicious attacks 
upon the personal character of others. 

36. Protection of our freedom of religion. Several cen- 
turies ago, in England and in other countries, people held 
such strong opinions about religious matters that those 
who controlled the Government would often persecute those 
who held different beliefs from their own. You recall that 
the Puritans left England and Holland and established 
themselves in New England in order that they might wor- 
ship God as they choose. 

Even after religious persecutions had generally ceased 
among civilized people, the Governments of most countries 
continued to prescribe a certain religion which was known 
as the " state religion." No one could vote or hold office 
who was not' a member of the so-called "established 
church" — that is, the church established and supported by 
the Government. This state of affairs continues today in 
some countries. In others, as for example in England, 
while all such restrictions upon office holding and voting 
have been removed, the church is still supported by the 
Government. People, however, are free to worship at any 
church they choose. 

You may not know that in Virginia down to 1785 there 
was an " established church." At times during colonial 
days persecutions were carried on in Virginia against those 



PROTECTION OF LIBERTY 47 

who presumed to teach any religion other than that of the 
Episcopal Church, or Church of England, as it was called. 
Xo small number of preachers were imprisoned in Virginia 
for having violated the peace of the community by preach- 
ing an "unlawful" religion. It was largely through the 
efforts of Thomas Jefferson and James Madison that com- 
plete freedom of religion was established in Virginia. This 
meant a great deal to the Baptists, Presbyterians, Metho- 
dists, and Quakers, who had for a long time suffered in the 
nanie. of their religion. 

/In this day and generation we can scarcely understand 
how disagreeable it was to have the Government impose 
one particular church upon all the people. We are accus- 
tomed to living in communities where every man is per- 
mitted to worship wherever he chooses and according to 
any form that he desires. Xof is any man today required 
by law to contribute to the support of any church. The 
people of Virginia have prohibited the Government from 
ever seeking to re-establish any particular church. 

37. Protection of our personal freedom. So long as we 
obey the laws of the community in which we live, we can- 
not be restrained in our freedom to do as we please. We 
may move about freely from place to place. We cannot 
be forced to remain in any one community, nor can we be 
compelled to render service to any other person. Of course 
it is the duty of a man who is at the head of a family to 
provide support for his family, and this frequently requires 
him to render service to other people for which he is paid. 
This, however, does not bind one man to serve another. 
Children, too, are not wholly free from restraint. They 
are naturally under the protection of their parents, and their 
freedom is in that respect very properly denied to them. 
Before the War between the States, almost the entire 



48 HOW WE ARE GOVERNED IN VIRGINIA 

negro population of Virginia, in common with the negroes 
of the rest of the South, was held in slavery. Slaves were 
bought and sold; indeed they were exchanged very much 
like other property. Although they were in most cases 
treated kindly by their masters, they did not enjoy any 
degree of personal freedom. They were compelled to do 
just what their owners required of them. As a result of 
the war, however, the negroes were made free, and today. 
they enjoy the same amount of personal freedom that is per- 
mitted to the white population. It is now a general prin- 
ciple of Government throughout the United States that no 
man is to be deprived of his liberty to do as he pleases so 
long as he obeys the laws of the community in which he 
lives. 

38. Summary. You will perhaps understand more fully 
now what we mean when 'we speak of our liberty in the 
community. It is true that the laws which the Govern- 
ment makes require many things of us and prevent us from 
doing others ; but as we have seen, this is necessary to pro- 
tect the rights and liberties of all. You must bear in mind 
too that the Government itself is controlled by the people. 
It cannot deprive us of certain of our fundamental liberties. 

QUESTIONS FOR CLASS DISCUSSION 

i. What are some of the rules of your school that restrict your 
liberty? Why, for instance, are you not allowed to talk whenever 
you choose, or to move about as you choose, or to make disturb- 
ances? How would these things conflict with the rights of others? 
Explain, then, what liberty in the schoolroom means. 

2. How is your liberty in the family restricted? Who makes the 
rules which you must obey in the home? Why are they made? 

3. Compare the restrictions upon your liberty in the school and in 
the family with the restrictions which the Government places upon 



PROTECTION OF LIBERTY 



49 



the liberties of people living in the community. Why are these 

latter restrictions necessary? What, then, do we mean by liberty in 
a community? 

4. Can the Government restrict the liberty of the people to any 
extent it chooses? Can the Government, for instance, prohibit free- 
dom of speech? What do Ave mean by freedom of speech? Can 
one man say or print anything he chooses about another without 
fear of punishment? 

5. Does the Government prescribe what church you shall attend? 
Could it do so if it wished? Why? Did the Government of Vir- 
ginia ever make such laws? Why were they abolished? What is 
mearrt^by an ''established church?'' 

6. Could the Government arrest you and throw you into prison 
without any cause? Suppose you were suspected of having com- 
mitted a crime, could you be arrested? What rights would you 
have? Would the Government have to prove you guilty? 

7. Did you ever hear or read that some officer of the Government 
was unworthy of his position. Have the people in Virginia the 
right to talk freely about the Government? What good results 
from this? What evil sometimes results? 

8. When was slavery abolished in Virginia? How much liberty 
did the slaves enjoy? What liberties do the colored people enjoy 
today? What liberties do all of us enjoy? 



CHAPTER V 

WHAT THE GOVERNMENT DOES TO HELP US 
IN OUR DESIRE FOR KNOWLEDGE 

39. Why the Government promotes education. Many of 
our histories record the famous remark made by Governor 
Berkeley, of Virginia, in his report to the Commissioners 
of the Colonies in 1671. "I thank God," he said, "there 
are no free schools or printing presses, and I hope we shall 
not have any these hundred years/' We of this day can 
scarcely understand what could have prompted such a 
remark as this. It seems almost as if our whole lives were 
centered around our schools and printing presses. What 
could Governor Berkeley have meant? His declaration 
certainly had a deeper meaning than we may at first be- 
lieve. It is a well known fact of history that people can 
be held under a tyrannical Government only by being kept 
ignorant, and this was exactly what Governor Berkeley 
had in mind. He realized very fully that as soon as the 
common people began to think for themselves, there would 
no longer be any possibility of the Government oppressing 
them. They would rise up and demand those rights which 
they had come to understand through education. As soon 
as people begin to learn things, as soon as they begin to 
read and write, they begin to feel their power, and they 
immediately want to govern themselves. 

It is just as true, however, that we as a people are not 
capable of governing ourselves unless our minds have been 
trained, unless we have studied earnestly, unless we are in- 

50 



PROMOTION OF EDUCATION 51 

telligent and well read. This is the reason why in the 
United States every State undertakes to provide schools 
for the people. The establishment of schools is the chief 
way in which the Government can promote knowledge 
among a people and make them better citizens. Nearly 
everybody now admits that in a democracy — that is, a 
community in which the people govern themselves — the 
Government must provide means for the education of every 
child, rich or poor, white or colored. 

^rO/llie history of public education in Virginia. Of all 
the great statesmen who helped to found this nation of 
ours, Thomas Jefferson perhaps had more faith than any 
one else in the ability of the people to govern themselves. 
He was a firm believer in popular or democratic Govern- 
ment. But he realized that it was very necessary to im- 
prove the intelligence of the masses of the people. He 
proposed that both primary and high schools be estab- 
lished at the public expense throughout the State of Vir- 
ginia, with a University, established in like manner, as the 
crowding achievement in a general system of free educa- 
tion. Although his plan was adopted by the Government 
of Virginia, it was never fully carried out. 

As early as 1808 a sum of money known as the Literary 
Fund was set aside for the education of the poor children of 
the State. It was not a large fund, however, and the peo- 
ple looked upon it as a charity. Even when they were too 
poor to pay for the education of their children, they were 
too proud in many cases to accept the assistance of. the 
Government. A considerable number of "free" schools 
were nevertheless established by means of this fund, as well 
as by private donations and subscriptions ; and many 
thousands of children were thus educated without expense 
to their parents. 



5 2 HOW WE ARE GOVERNED IN VIRGINIA 

It is only since the War between the States, however, 
that a real system of public education has been established 
in Virginia. The old "free" schools existing in various 
parts of the State were made a part of our present system, 
which dates back only to the year r87o. 

It has often been remarked that the Northern States 
were far in advance of Virginia in establishing public schools. 
The Governor of Connecticut, at the same time that Gov- 
ernor Berkeley made his outrageous remark about free 
schools and printing presses, wrote to the Commissioners, 
saying : " One fourth of the annual revenue of the colony 
is laid out in maintaining free schools for the education of 
our children/' This certainly showed a marked difference 
in the attitude of the two colonies toward education. Why 
was it that Virginia was so long in establishing a system 
of public schools? There were several very good reasons. 

In the first place Virginia was settled in large planta- 
tions widely scattered over the State. The people of the 
country districts, therefore, lived far apart from one 
another. Even had the Government in early times 
attempted to establish schools, it would have been difficult 
for the children in the outlying districts to attend them. 

Moreover, there was in Virginia a large population of 
negro slaves. This fact caused society to be divided into 
three classes. There was first a wealthy class of land- 
owners and slave-owners, together with the professional 
men of the State. Next there was a class of poor white 
people consisting of mechanics, artisans, and laborers, who 
were despised by the negroes. And lastly there was the 
slave population. Now the Government of Virginia was 
almost exclusively in the hands of the upper class. The 
people of this class had money and the opportunity to pro- 
vide education for their children by other means than at 




A Rude '' One-Room" School 
A type that is fast disappearing in rural Virginia 



1 


1 . 


■ 


m, r I 




1 





A Manual Training Class 
A workshop for boys in a modern Virginia graded school 



54 HOW WE ARE GOVERNED IN VIRGINIA 

the public expense. They did not see the necessity, there- 
fore, for general public education in order that all the peo- 
ple might share in the Government. 

In New England, however, where public education first 
flourished, conditions were very different. The people 
settled in towns and on small farms. They were all close 
together, and it was easy for the children to get to a school 
if it was provided for them. There were few negro slaves 
in these communities, society was not divided into classes, 
and nearly everybody took some part in the popular gov- 
ernment. Under such conditions it was natural that each 
of these town communities should establish a school for all 
the children. You can readily understand, therefore, why 
public education developed early in New England, and 
why it failed to develop in Virginia and the rest of the 
South. 

41. How the family should help to promote knowledge. 
There are many ways in which the family can and ought to 
assist in educating its members whenever it can afford to 
do so. There ought to be newspapers, magazines, and 
books in every household, and the children should be en- 
couraged in the reading of good literature. Sometimes the 
wealthier families in a community employ special teachers 
for their children. Sometimes they pay for their education 
at private schools and colleges. It is very clear, however, 
that if this were the only means afforded for the education 
of children, the result would be that only the well-to-do 
families would be educated. This, as we have just seen, 
was once the situation in Virginia. It is equally clear that 
if every child in the community is to have the opportunity 
of an education, the community must provide the schools. 

Perhaps the foremost duty of the family is to see that 
children are sent to school. Parents sometimes fail to 



PROMOTION OF EDUCATION 55 

realize their own responsibility. The Government indeed 
provides the schools, but it is the duty of parents to see 
that their children take advantage of every opportunity for 
education that is within their reach. 

42. What the Government of Virginia aims to do for edu- 
cation. Those who have in charge the direction of public 
education in Virginia have said that their present aim is to 
place within reach of every child in the State a well 
equipped graded school, and to establish in each county at 
least on£ high school. But the Government has to face 
many/difficulties in accomplishing this high purpose. In 
the first place, the necessary money is not always easy 
to secure. Sometimes communities are very poor. They 
object to giving a great deal of money for the establish- 
ment and support of schools. There are many people also 
who do not realize in its fullest sense the need of general 
education. They prefer to have the Government spend its 
money for good roads or some other purpose. And even 
when schools are established, they prevent their children 
from attending them because they need them to work at 
home or on the farm. 

Another difficulty which the Government has to face in 
the building up of a system of schools is caused by the fact 
that our population is divided into two races. There must 
be separate schools for each race, and the expense is in 
consequence often doubled. All the children of school age 
in a given community may not be more than fifty, but if 
twenty-five of these are colored children, there must be 
two schools. 

The Government, however, has accomplished a great 
deal in the way of overcoming these obstacles. While the 
responsibility for supporting the schools rests largely with 
each county or city, the State Government recognizes that 



56 HOW WE ARE GOVERNED IN VIRGINIA 

it must assist in building up the school system. It there- 
fore appropriates a part of the money necessary for the 
maintenance of schools in each community. Sometimes 
there are a number of poor schools situated close together. 
In many cases these are being consolidated into one school 
with a splendid building, more teachers, and better equip- 
ment. In order that the children may not find it difficult 
to attend these consolidated schools, wagons are usually 
provided to take the children to and from school. The 
Government is also encouraging the formation of educa- 
tional leagues and associations in each community. The 
object of these associations is to arouse interest in public 
education and to exer.t their influence for the improvement 
of school conditions. There has recently been established 
in Virginia also a journal devoted entirely to the interests 
of education. To this journal the Government lends its 
hearty support. It is evident that the Government is doing 
everything within its power to furnish for the children of 
Virginia excellent educational opportunities. 

43. Education in cities. Cities usually provide better 
equipped schools than the country districts are able to 
afford, and it is easy to see why this should be the case. 
The cities are always wealthier than the rural communities, 
and can more easily get money for schools. There are 
many more children to be provided for, and since these 
children live close together, they find no difficulty in get- 
ting to and from school. In every city of Virginia there 
is a school within walking distance of every child. The 
organization of the schools is also usually better than that 
of the country schools. This results from the fact that in 
the cities it is possible for the superintendent of schools to 
keep constantly and closely in touch with the every-day 
conditions of his schools. In every city, moreover, and 



Old Building of the Blacksburg Graded School, 
Montgomery County, Virginia 




\"k Bin. dim; cf tee Black sburg Graded and High School 



58 HOW WE ARE GOVERNED IN VIRGINIA 

in many towns and counties, a high school is provided so 
that the young people may continue their education be- 
yond the elementary studies. 

44. What the Government does for higher education. In 
Virginia, as in most of the States of the Union, the Gov- 
ernment is not content with providing graded and high 
schools for the boys and girls of the State. Some pro- 
vision is also made for higher education in colleges, insti- 
tutes, and universities. The University of Virginia, at 
Charlottesville, was established in 1819 through the efforts 
of Thomas Jefferson. From that day to this, supported 
partly by the Government of the State, it has been educat- 
ing men whose influence has been felt not only in the State 
but also in the affairs of the nation. Every boy in Vir- 
ginia can secure at this University his college education 
free of all cost. At Farmville, the Government of the 
State maintains a Normal School for the training of women 
teachers ; and in 1908 provision was made for two addi- 
tional normal schools for women, one located at Harrison- 
burg, and the other at Fredericksburg. It lends its support 
also to the Virginia Military Institute at Lexington, the 
Virginia Polytechnic Institute at Blacksburg, William and 
Mary College at Williamsburg, and the Medical College of 
Virginia at Richmond. The Government also maintains 
for the colored people a Normal and Industrial School at 
Petersburg. 

45. What the school does for the community. We have 
been discussing the question of what the community, or 
Government, is doing for the schools. The question 
naturally arises, why should the Government go to all of 
this trouble and spend all the money necessary to establish 
an adequate school system? We saw that one of the 
reasons for this was that the people of any community 



PROMOTION OF EDUCATION 



59 



must be educated if they are to govern themselves intelli- 
gently, i See page 50. J You must not think, however, 
that schools are provided simply that men may know how 
to vote intelligently. There are several other reasons why 
the community ought to encourage and support schools. 
Let us see what some of these reasons are. 




A Wagon in Prince Edward County 
Used for carrying children to and from a consolidated school 

In the first place, educated men understand some things 
which uneducated men do not understand. Knowing 
more things and having trained minds, they make better 
farmers, better store-keepers, better business men. They 
can earn more money, and whatever a man earns for him- 
self, you must understand, increases the wealth and pros- 
perity of the community in which he lives. 



6o 



HOW WE ARE GOVERNED IN VIRGINIA 



In the second place, your life within the school is very 
similar to the life you are to lead in the community. Just 
as in the community people have desires, so in the school 
the pupils have desires — desires for health, for possessions, 
for liberty, for knowledge, for progress. The purpose of 
the school is to assist the pupil in the attainment of these 
desires. But there are also conflicts in the desires which 
different pupils have, and as a result there are rules or laws 
of the school which must be obeved. The teachers and the 




New Building of the Louisa Court House 
Graded and High School 

principal, backed by the superintendent and the school 
board, make and enforce these laws. They correspond to 
the Government in a community; they are the Govern- 
ment of the school. You thus see that in your life in the 
schoolroom you are face to face with many of the same 
conditions which people meet in community life. You are 
trained at school into habits of obedience. You are taught 
to respect your elders and superiors, to be courteous 



superiors, 



PROMOTION OF EDUCATION 6l 

always to your fellow-students, and to be considerate of 
their rights and privileges. The good habits you form 
and the training you receive in school are just what you 
need to make you a better citizen in your community. 
Sometimes these facts are lost sight of in the every-day life 
of the schoolroom, but even when they are not brought to 
your attention, they are not without their effect. The 
training for good citizenship is always present in the 
schoolroom. 

In the' third place, our outlook is broadened by educa- 
tion. We learn of many things that have happened during 
the world's history, and t of many more that are happening 
today. We learn to understand and appreciate many old 
things and to see many new things. We come to enjoy 
good books and other high forms of pleasure. We see our 
duty to our community more clearly. We are more will- 
ing to devote our time to the service of our community 
and State ; and perhaps we are trained so that we will make 
efficient servants of the public. 

Of course there are some exceptions to this. Not all 
educated men are noble, and high-minded, and considerate 
of the welfare of their community, but it is true that this is 
the general effect of education upon a people. You can 
easily see, then, what the school does in return for all that 
the community sacrifices to build and maintain it. 

In one other way does the school improve the com- 
munity. It often advances the prosperity of the commu- 
nity by increasing the value of property and attracting new 
residents. People do not always realize the truth of this. 
When families with children desire to move from one com- 
munity to another they are often very particular to in- 
quire about the schools. They are unwilling to settle in 
any place unless there is a good school near at hand. This 



62 HOW WE ARE GOVERNED IN VIRGINIA 

is true both in the city and in the country districts. More- 
over, whenever a handsome school is built in any commu- 
nity the property around the school nearly always advances 
in value. People want to live close to the school, and they 
are willing to pay for the privilege of doing so. 

46. Other ways in which the Government promotes knowl- 
edge. We have seen that the public schools are the chief 
means by which the Government fosters education in the 
community. The Government does many other things, 
however, to advance knowledge among the people. It has 
established in Staunton an institution in which the deaf and 
blind receive education appropriate to their needs. A few 
miles from Richmond there is a reformatory where way- 
ward boys are sent to be instructed in useful trades and to 
receive moral training, in order that they may not in after 
years become criminals who violate the laws of the com- 
munity. 

In Richmond there is a large library owned and sup- 
ported by the State Government. In connection with this 
library, collections of books known as "traveling libraries" 
are sent temporarily to all parts of the State. Moreover, 
in some of the cities of Virginia there is a movement on 
foot to establish free libraries. Norfolk already has such 
a library. The building was given by Mr. Andrew Car- 
negie, and the library is supported at the expense of the 
city. 

47. Summary. It is evident that the communities in Vir- 
ginia are making marvellous progress in the advancement 
of education and the promotion of knowledge among the 
people. There is much yet to be done. The day is not 
f?.r distant, however, when every child in the State of Vir- 
ginia may have the opportunity, at least, of securing a 
splendid education, free of all direct cost to his family, 
under the patronage and support of the Government. 



PROMOTION OF EDUCATION 63 



QUESTIONS FOR CLASS DISCUSSION 

1. What evidences are there in your community that the Govern- 
ment is helping the people to attain knowledge? Are there public 
schools? Is there a public library? Is there a high school? A 
public institution of higher learning? Have you ever seen a travel- 
ing library? 

2. Explain how your life in the school corresponds to life in 
your community. What constitutes the school government? Who 
makes a^d^who enforces the laws? Do you see how your school 
training will help to make you a better citizen? In what way? 

3. Do the people in Virginia govern themselves? What kind of 
Government is this called? Why is education necessary for people 
who govern themselves? What were Thomas Jefferson's views 
about this? 

4. What are some of the reasons why public education did not 
develop in Virginia before the war? Why did it develop in New, 
England? 

5. Tell what you know of the school system of your community,. 
If there is no high school near you,, are the people talking of 
building one? Who is your county or city superintendent? What 
are the duties of the school board? Do you know any of its mem- 
bers? 

6. Is your school a graded or an ungraded school? Have any 
schools in your county been consolidated? How are the pupils 
brought to the school? Why were the schools consolidated? If 
you are a pupil in a consolidated school, what are some of the advan- 
tages you now enjoy which you did not have before? 

7. Who builds and pays for the support of public schools? W T hy 
does the Government do this? Suppose the Government did not 
provide schools, are there not many children who would be deprived 
of an education? 

8. In what ways does the family assist in education? What is the 
duty that parents owe their children? What duty do you as pupils 
owe yourselves? 



CHAPTER VI 

WHAT THE GOVERNMENT DOES TO PROMOTE 
COMMUNITY PROGRESS 

48. What community progress is. It is very necessary 
that the people who live in a community shall have daily 
intercourse with one another, and that this intercourse 
shall be made as comfortable and easy as possible. This 
calls for good roads and streets, for railroad, steamboat, 
and trolley lines. Means must be provided also by which 
the people of one community may have communication 
with the people of other communities. This requires that 
a system of post-offices be established, as well as telegraph 
and telephone service. Most of us too desire beautiful 
things around us, not only in our homes, but when we go 
out into the highways which are the common property of all 
the people of the community. The eye is pleased with the 
sight of such things as beautiful buildings, well-kept parks, 
and monuments, and our life within the community is made 
more delightful and more inspiring by the presence of 
these things. Now we usually have in mind undertakings 
of this kind when we speak of community progress. 

We must bear in mind, however, that each of us is very 
largely responsible for the progress that our community 
makes. The improvements we put upon our own property 
help to improve the community. When we plant grass 
and flowers in our yards, we improve the appearance of the 
streets. When children refrain from scattering paper in 
the streets, from defacing trees and shrubs, from marking 

64 



PROMOTION OF COMMUNITY PROGRESS 65 

on fences and walls, they help to keep their community 
clean and attractive. When a man advances his own busi- 
ness interests, he promotes the welfare of the community as 
a whole, for the prosperity of the community is measured 
by the prosperity of those who live in it. In many ways 
each of us can assist in promoting the progress of our 
community. 

Sometimes, too, large companies are formed for the pur- 
pose of carrying on enterprises which advance community 
progressT Railroads, trolley lines, boat lines, the tele- 
graph and the telephone service are all owned and operated 
by private companies for the purpose of gain. The pro- 
gress of any community is very dependent upon such un- 
dertakings as these. 

In many cases, however, neither an individual nor a 
stock company is willing to undertake those things that 
are necessary for the progress of the whole community. 
Most of them require an enormous outlay of money, and 
from many of them no profit can be derived. It then be- 
comes the duty of the Government to undertake these 
great enterprises. They call for the expenditure of a large 
amount of money, but they increase the comfort, the pleas- 
ure, and the pride of all the members of the community, 
and they facilitate communication and intercourse. 

49. Why good roads are necessary. When in 1790 
Thomas Jefferson arrived in New York to take his posi- 
tion as Secretary of State in the new Government of the 
United States, he wrote to a friend whom he had left in 
Virginia: "I arrived here on the 21st inst, after as 
laborious a journey of a fortnight from Richmond as I 
ever went through ; resting only one day at Alexandria, 
and another at Baltimore. I found my carriage and 
horses at Alexandria, but a snow of eighteen inches deep 




An Unimproved Road in Augusta 



fTY. \ IRGIXIA 




The Same Road at the Same Point After Improvement 



PROMOTION OF COMMUNITY PROGRESS 67 

falling the same night, I saw the impossibility of getting 
on in my carriage, so left it there, to be sent to me by 
water, and had my horses led on to this place [New York], 
taking my passage in the stage, however relieving myself 
a little sometimes by mounting my horse. The roads 
through the whole way -were so bad that we could never go 
more than 3 miles an hour, sometimes not more than 2, and 
in the night but one." 

In tlxs^day of rapidly flying railway trains and tire other 
conveniences of swift transportation, we can scarcely under- 
stand what difficulties and discomforts attended upon 
travel in those early days. Think of taking fourteen days 
for a trip from Richmond to New York — a journey which 
we now make in. almost half as many hours. 

Many people, especially those who live in cities, think 
that with our present system of railroads there is no lon- 
ger any necessity for having good driving roads. They 
point out that articles of food and products for manu- 
facture are brought into the great cities almost entirely by 
railroad or by boat. They would perhaps be surprised to 
learn that ninety-five per cent of these articles have first to 
be hauled by wagons over the country roads to depots and 
wharfs. And it must be remembered that the people 
living in cities are absolutely dependent upon the people 
of the country districts, both for their food and for the 
raw materials which they use in factories. The problem 
of good roads is therefore one in which all of us should be 
deeply interested. 

50. What the Government in Virginia does for good 
roads. In Jefferson's time it was generally the custom in 
Virginia for the large planters to build such rude roads as 
they needed. If these roads were used by others, a toll 
was charged. With the growth of population it became 



68 HOW WE ARE GOVERNED IN VIRGINIA 

evident that the community would have to undertake the 
construction of roads for the common benefit of all. Even 
after the counties began to build roads, the Government 
usually met the expenses by charging tolls. This toll 
system is still followed in some parts of the State; and 
there are still some private roads. 

Another plan adopted in Virginia was that of requiring 
every able-bodied man living outside of a town or city to 
work on the country roads two days of each year, or else 
to pay the county a sum equivalent to a laborer's wages for 
two days. A law providing for this method of keeping up 
the roads existed in Virginia down to 1904, but it was not 
a great success. Some people think that anybody can 
construct a road; but as a matter of fact the building of a 
good road requires the skill of a trained engineer. Most 
farmers do not possess this necessary training. 

Provision is now made by which the State Government 
supplies to each county desiring to improve its roads a 
competent road-engineer and a force of laborers made up 
of convicts from the State penitentiary. The county pays 
the salary of the engineer, as well as for the material — 
gravel, stone, cinders, shells — used in making the road. 
This law has been in operation only a short time. If the 
counties will take advantage of this means offered by the 
State, much can be done to improve the condition of the 
roads, and thus to advance the progress of the country 
districts. The State Government has more recently deter- 
mined to appropriate $250,000 annually, beginning with 
the year 1909, to assist the counties in constructing roads. 
Half of the expense will be borne by the State. 

51. How the Government controls railroads. In Europe 
many of the railroads are owned and operated by the Gov- 
ernment, but in the United States this plan is not adopted. 



PROMOTION OF COMMUNITY PROGRESS 6o 

The Government realizes, however, that the people are very 
dependent upon railroads, and it lends every encourage- 
ment to the building of new lines through parts of the 
country where there are poor railway facilities. For in- 
stance, as we have already noticed (see page 41), it gives 
to the railways the power to take property whenever neces- 
sary under the right of eminent domain, provided always 
that the owner shall be justly paid for the property that is 
taken. The Government realizes, too, that the indivi- 
dual members of a community are very much at the mercy 
of railroads. They may charge exorbitant fares and 
freight rates, or they may be inconsiderate of the traveler's 
comfort. The Government has therefore found it neces- 
sary to subject railroads to very rigid control. 

In Virginia there has recently been established a com- 
mission, known as the State Corporation Commission, 
whose duty it is to make regulations for the control of the 
railroads in the people's interests. This commission con- 
sists of three men. It has the power to determine what 
rates shall be charged, and to require the railways to pro- 
vide comfortable and convenient service for the public. 
The commission can even punish railways by heavy fines in 
case they refuse to obey its orders. The members of the 
commission are given the right also to examine the books 
of the railways and to require reports from them, in order 
that they may at all times be thoroughly in touch with the 
affairs of every railroad. 

Most of our large railways extend beyond the State of 
Virginia into neighboring States. Of course Virginia can- 
not completely control the operations of such railways. 
Wherever these conditions exist, it is necessary for the 
national Government at Washington to undertake the 
control. 



7 o HOW WE ARE GOVERNED IN VIRGINIA 

52. How the Government controls waterways. The 

rivers, lakes, and harbors of the State of Virginia are the 
property of the whole people. No one can claim these 
waterways as a part of his own property. Before the days 
of the steam-engine or even of good driving roads, much 
of the travel and most of the freight traffic was carried on 
by means of the waterways. In the passage quoted above 
you remember how Jefferson told of his being forced to 
send his carriage to New York by water. Virginia is 
peculiarly fortunate in having a large number of naviga- 
ble rivers and good harbors. The Government does many 
things for the improvement of the means of navigation. 
It provides for the dredging of rivers and harbors in order 
that larger boats may be able to navigate them. It sur- 
veys and makes charts of the channels of these waterways 
in order that boats may not become grounded in shallow 
water. It makes regulations for the pilots who are to 
steer boats through these channels, and in many other 
ways it provides for security of travel by water. 

Sometimes too the Government has undertaken to build 
canals where there was no natural water route. The 
James River on account of the rocks is not navigable above 
Richmond. Many years ago the Government of Virginia 
assisted in building a canal from Lynchburg to Richmond. 
The rapid development of railways, however, and the con- 
sequent reduction of rates largely put an end to canal 
building. 

53. How the Government controls trolley lines. With 
the use of electricity in transportation vast systems of 
trolley lines have grown up in and near many of the cities 
of Virginia. The Government finds it necessary to con- 
trol these lines in much the same way that it controls steam 
railways. No company can use the streets of a city for 



PROMOTION OF COMMUNITY PROGRESS 



71 



the operation of electric cars without the consent of the 
Government. In return for its consent the Government 
reserves the right to fix the fares to be charged, and to 
regulate the speed of the cars and the frequency with 
which they must be run. 

These trolley lines form a network of tracks through- 
out the larger cities. They provide easy means of trans- 




A Rural Electric Line 

This viaduct, forming a part of the electric railway between Richmond 

and Ashland, is built of solid concrete. 



portation from one part of the city to another, and they 
frequently extend a considerable distance into the country 
districts. Around the larger cities of Virginia extensive 
rural trolley lines have developed. The city of Norfolk is 
connected by trolley with Virginia Beach, Ocean View, 
Willoughby Spit, Sewall's Point, and Pine Beach. Ports- 
mouth is likewise connected with Port Norfolk, Pinner's 
Point, and Churchland. From Richmond electric lines 



j 2 HOW WE ARE GOVERNED IN VIRGINIA 

now extend to Petersburg, Ashland, and Seven Pines, 
while Manchester and all the city's suburbs are by the 
same means brought into immediate connection with the 
heart of the capital city. 

Many advantages have resulted from the growth of 
suburban electric lines. People no longer have to live 
near their place of work. At little cost and in a short 
time they can be carried away from the city to pleasant 
homes in the surrounding country. There they enjoy 
better air and have some of the advantages of country life. 
Land too is always cheaper on the outskirts of a city, and 
people of small means can more easily establish homes of 
their own. 

54. Transportation and progress. In what we have said 
about roads, waterways, railways, and electric lines, we 
have frequently used the word "transportation," which 
means the methods by which persons and freight are car- 
ried from one point to another. In modern times it is 
very necessary that transportation be made easy, safe, and 
comfortable. People have to move from place to place 
very frequently. They cannot afford to waste much time 
in. travel. The more quickly they are enabled to reach 
their destination with safety, the more they can accom- 
plish. It thus happens that the progress of a community 
can often be measured very definitely by the means of 
transportation which the community affords. 

We have only to refer to one instance in the history of the State 
of Virginia to see the truth of this. In the early part of the nine- 
teenth century the people of the State began to move across the 
mountains, first into the valley, and then into what is now West 
Virginia but was then a part of Virginia. They had no communi- 
cation with the sea and therefore had no outlet for the products they 
raised and the minerals they dug from the earth. The Government 



PROMOTION OF COMMUNITY PROGRESS 73, 

of Virginia was almost wholly in the hands of the landowners and 
slave-owners who lived east of the Blue Ridge Mountains. These 
were jealous of their power. They were jealous too of expending a 
great deal of money to increase the prosperity of the people of the 
western part of the State. The pioneers of the West plead with 
them to build a railroad across the mountains, connecting West 
Virginia with the canal at Lynchburg; but the Government of Vir- 
ginia hesitated to undertake the proposition. What was the result? 
There was already a good wagon road leading from this part of 
Virginia through the ' State of Maryland ; and later the Baltimore 
and Ohip^Railroad was built, connecting western Virginia with 
the port of Baltimore, then a small city. The products of western 
Virginia began to pour into Baltimore, and Baltimore began to grow. 
But for this failure to provide the necessary means for transporta- 
tion, Norfolk, with natural harbor facilities far in advance of those 
of Baltimore, might have been to-day what Baltimore is — a city of 
many hundred thousand people. 

55. What the Government does for the transmission of 
news. Postal service. Even as far back as the colonial 
period a crude system of post-offices was established, 
largely through the influence of Benjamin Franklin. At 
first it was a private undertaking, but the people very soon 
realized that it was an enterprise affecting the interests of 
the whole country. It was not long, therefore, before it 
was taken over by the Government. To-day the business 
of carrying the mails is owned and operated exclusively by 
the national Government at Washington. 

In early days the mails were subjected to the same de- 
lays and difficulties that attended travel. They were car- 
ried by horsemen or stage-coaches, and postage was very 
expensive. After the building of railroads there came a 
reform in the service. The charges for postage were 
greatly reduced, for the Government came to realize that 
cheaper and quicker service was necessary for the progress 
of the whole country. 



74 HOW WE ARE GOVERNED IN VIRGINIA 

Since the first reduction of postage rates, many other 
reforms have been introduced to facilitate the carrying of 
the mails and to improve the usefulness of the service to 
the people. The most recent of these progressive steps 
has been the establishment of what is known as "rural free 
deliveries." For a long time mail matter has been de- 
livered in cities directly to the houses ; elsewhere people 
had to call at the post-office for their mail. Where de- 



A Rural Free Delivery Wagon 
Ready to start from the village post-office 

livery routes have been established in the country districts, 
the farmer now gets his letters and newspapers promptly, 
and without the necessity perhaps of a long trip to the 
post-office. 

On account of their weight newspapers, magazines, and 
books are more expensive to carry than letters. Yet the 



PROMOTION OF COMMUNITY PROGRESS 75 

transmission of such matter is very necessary in order that 
the people of one community may be kept in constant 
touch with what the other communities of their State and 
country are doing. They promote the general knowledge 
and information of the people* The Government therefore 
carries such printed matter at lower rates than it charges 
for letters, even though this policy results in an annual' 
loss of about twenty-five million dollars. Small packages 
also may be sent through the mails. 

Telegraph* and telephone service. In nearly all Euro- 
pean countries the telegraph lines are owned and 
operated by the Government, and in some of them the 
telephone service also. This is not the case in the United 
States. The transmission of news by telegraph and tele- 
phone is a business undertaken by large companies for 
purposes of gain. As a result this service in the United 
States is more expensive than it is in Europe. Although 
the Government does not own the telegraph and telephone 
systems, the companies engaged in operating them are 
subjected to strict control. The Government realizes that 
we have become very dependent upon these methods of 
transmitting intelligence. It will not permit telegraph and 
telephone companies to charge exorbitant rates, and it 
usually requires them, in the interests of the public, to main- 
tain a thoroughly efficient service. 

In recent years telephone systems have been very gen- 
erally installed throughout the country districts of Virginia. 
This has resulted in immense advantages to rural commu- 
nities. People who live on farms that are some distance 
apart have means for enjoying constant communication 
with one another. Moreover the telephone enables them 
to keep in touch with neighboring towns and cities both 
for business and social purposes. The rural telephone and 



j6 HOW WE ARE GOVERNED IN VIRGINIA 

the rural free delivery have proved to be of immense im- 
portance in promoting the progress of our farm commu- 
nities. 

56. How the Government controls the streets. In cities, 
as we have seen, the streets are the common property of 
all the people and are controlled by the Government for 
the people's benefit. Their chief use is for walking and 
driving. The Government, however, allows the streets to 
be used for many other necessary purposes, although it 
usually takes care that walking and driving shall not be 
seriously interfered with. Sometimes a street is tempora- 
rily closed for repairs or for excavations, and sometimes 
when buildings are being erected or torn down, a street is 
partially obstructed. In all of our cities, however, the 
Government makes regulations to prevent people from 
placing unnecessary obstructions in the streets. When a 
large building is being erected in the business section of 
the city, you may have noticed that the sidewalk is often 
covered over in order that people may pass to and fro in 
safety. 

Frequently the Government itself makes use of the 
streets for the benefit of the people. It places numerous 
mains and pipes beneath the streets for the purpose of 
carrying off the sewerage, as well as for the purpose of 
supplying water and gas to the inhabitants of the city. 
The Government usually owns the sewer system, the water- 
works, and the gas-plant. Some cities also own the power- 
houses used for lighting the streets by electricity. When- 
ever the Government operates such things as these, it 
makes free use of the streets. 

Private companies are also permitted to use the streets 
for certain purposes of advantage to the people. Electric 
car companies are permitted to lay tracks and string wires. 



PROMOTION OF COMMUNITY PROGRESS 7; 

Telegraph, telephone, and electric lighting companies are 
also allowed to put up poles and wires. In every case, 
however, the Government reserves the right to regulate 
the business of these companies (see pages 70, 75), and 
makes them pay for the use of the streets. 

The custom of stringing wires on poles along the streets 
is very objectionable. The intricate network of wires in 
the business section of the city is not only dangerous but 
presents an unsightly appearance. A movement has 
started in some of the cities of Virginia to require all wires 
to be pm in conduits under the ground, and considerable 
progress has been made in this direction. The day will 
come, too, when overhead trolley wires will give way to the 
more improved system of placing them underground, al- 
though this latter system is far more expensive. 

You see therefore that the Government endeavors in 
many ways to control the streets for the the best interests 
of the people living in the city community. 

57. How the Government improves the appearance of the 
community. In the country districts where people live 
scattered about on farms, whatever is done to beautify the 
community must be attended to largely by individuals. 
The farmer can do much to add to the attractiveness of his 
surroundings. In clearing out ground for cultivation, 
trees should always be left standing along the roads. Vine 
hedges are a great improvement upon bare fences of wire 
or rails. Freshly painted houses and barns, neatly kept 
barn-yards, well ordered lawns in front of the houses, trees 
and flowers — these are a few of the things that help to 
make rural communities more pleasing to the eye and more 
inspiring and attractive to live in. 

The individuals who live in cities are also largely re- 
sponsible for the attractive appearance of the community 



78 



HOW WE ARE GOVERNED IN VIRGINIA 



(see page 64), but in addition the city Government under- 
takes many things to improve appearances. Cleanliness is 
naturally the first consideration. To this end the Govern- 
ment either requires the individual to pave the sidewalk 
bordering his property or else assists him in paving it. In 
most cities too the Government either macadamizes the 
roadbeds of the principal streets or paves them with stone, 
brick, or asphalt. It provides also a force of men whose 








A Well-Kept Street in Petersburg, Virginia 

Observe, however, how the appearance of the street is marred by 
the unsightly poles and wires. 



duty it is to keep the streets well swept, and in some cities 
the streets are watered to allay the dust. 

But cleanliness is not all; something must be done to 
add to the beauty of the streets. Our city Governments 
provide for the setting out of trees, which greatly improve 
the appearance of the streets and add to the comfort of 
those who use them during the heated season. Parks are 



PROMOTION OF COMMUNITY PROGRESS 79 

also provided, with stretches' of closely cropped grass, 
beautiful shade trees, beds of flowers, fountains, and well- 
kept paths. The Government frequently assists in erecting 
monuments to commemorate the site of some important 
event of history, or the life of some great hero. In erect- 
ing public buildings, it is the duty of the Government— a 
duty not always observed — to see not only that the build- 
ings are suited to their purpose, but that they are also an 
architectural ornament to the community in which they 
are erecfecL- 

The grounds around school buildings can be made 
attractive at comparatively little expense. Cleanliness and 
beauty can be very easily provided for. You, as school 
children, can do many things to beautify your school build- 
ing and grounds. In most cases you can have flower beds 
in the school yard, and you yourselves can care for the 
flowers. Perhaps you can also plant trees and vines about 
the grounds. Especially, however, can you assist by tak- 
ing care of the school furniture, and by refusing to litter 
the school yard or to place unsightly pictures and writing 
on walls and fences. 

58. Summary. Perhaps you now have a better idea of 
how many things the Government is doing to promote 
community progress. If our community has the progres- 
sive spirit, it cannot fail to be an attractive and inspiring 
place to live in. There are many things which we our- 
selves can do, but there are others that the community as 
a whole must undertake. Each of us can show our interest 
in these things and our appreciation of them. We can do 
much to make our own homes a pride to the community. 
And we can certainly refrain from interfering with the 
community's efforts to keep the roads, the streets, the 
parks, and the schoolhouses clean and beautiful. 



8o HOW WE ARE GOVERNED IN VIRGINIA 

QUESTIONS FOR CLASS DISCUSSION 

1. What are the means afforded by your community for your get- 
ting to and from school? Is your school building attractive? Are 
there flowers and trees in the yard? Are you pupils careful to keep 
your school neat and clean? Can you think of some things that 
could easily be done to make your school more attractive? Can you 
help in any way? 

2. What is the condition of the roads in your community ? Are 
there any macadamized roads? Who attends to the repairing of the 
roads? Do you know of any road that has recently been repaired? 
How was it done? Are there any toll roads in your county? Who 
owns them? Why was the method of having the farmers work on 
the roads two days in the year given up? 

3. Are there any waterways near your community? Who owns 
them? Is anything being done to improve them? Do you know of 
any river or harbor that has been dredged recently? 

4. Is there a railway in your community? Who owns it? How 
does the Government control it? What are the duties of the State 
Corporation Commission? 

5. Are there any electric lines in your community? Are they 
wholly within your town or city, or do they run into the country? 
Who controls them? If you live in a city, is your electric car ser- 
vice good or poor? Have the suburbs of your city grown since the 
building of electric lines? 

6. How far is your post-office from your home? Are letters de- 
livered to you, or do you call for them? Who owns the post- 
offices ? Why are newspapers and books carried for less than 
letters ? 

7. How far from your home is the nearest express office? The 
nearest telegraph office? Is there a telephone service in your com- 
munity? Does the Government own any of these services? Does it 
control them? 

8. If you live in a city, find out who owns the waterworks. The 
gas-plant. The electric plant or plants. How are water, gas, and 
electricity distributed through the city? 

9. Does your city permit wires to be strung on poles along the 
streets? What objection is there to this? Do the electric car lines 
and the telegraph and telephone companies pay for the use they 



PROMOTION OF COMMUNITY PROGRESS 81 

make of the streets? What use do they make? Whom do they 
pay? 

10. Are the sidewalks of your city or town paved? Who paved 
them? Are the roadbeds of the streets paved? Who paved them? 
Are there trees along the streets? Who set them out? What are 
the names of your parks? Describe them. Are they well kept? 
Who pays for keeping them up? 

11. Why does the Government undertake these things for the 
cities? Who enjoys them? Why are such things not done in the 
country districts? Can you think of anything that could be done 
to improve the appearance of your community? Is there anything 
you could do? 

12. Are there any public buildings in your community? Mention 
one that you think is beautiful. One that you think is unsightly. 



CHAPTER VII 

HOW THE GOVERNMENT IS SUPPORTED 

59. What is meant by taxation. In the foregoing chap- 
ters we have seen something of what the Government does 
to assist us in the attainment of certain desires that we 
should be unable to enjoy without assistance. Have you 
stopped to consider that a great deal of money is needed 
for the working out of all these plans? In a State like Vir- 
ginia there must be many officers to carry on the work of 
the various departments of the Government. To these 
salaries must be paid. There must be many buildings, 
such as court-houses and jails, schoolhouses and libraries, 
city halls, fire houses, and poorhouses. There must be 
money for the improvement of roads, the paving of streets, 
the building of bridges. Where does this money come 
from ? It is raised by a system called taxation. 

Most of you have doubtless heard taxes spoken of, but you 
may never have understood just what they are, or why they 
are necessary. Now your attention has been called to the 
fact that the Government undertakes to do for the people of 
a community many things that promote the welfare of the 
community as a whole. For these things money is needed. 
Perhaps you will appreciate more fully, then, why the rais- 
ing of taxes is a very essential part of ^ife in a community ; 
it is essential to the existence of the Government, and there- 
fore essential to the peace and the happiness of each of us 
living in the community. 

What is a tax ? A tax is a sum of money taken from the 

82 



HOW THE GOVERNMENT IS SUPPORTED 83 

individual to be used by the Government for the interest 
of the whole community. Or, as it is sometimes briefly 
put, "a tax is private property taken for a public purpose." 
You must bear in mind that taxing is taking property; for 
although taxes are usually paid in money, we must not for- 
get that money is one form of property. 

Many people have a feeling that the payment of taxes is 
a great hardship. They look upon it almost as oppression. 
They do not see that they are doing anything wrong if they 
avoid spaying their taxes whenever it is possible. They 
sometimes even make false statements in order to be re- 
lieved of the burden of taxation. They do not seem to 
realize that the Government gives them something in re- 
turn for the money paid in taxes. It gives them innumer- 
able protections for their life, their liberty, and their prop- 
erty, and innumerable benefits such as good roads, paved 
and lighted streets, and schoolhouses. As a matter of fact, 
we should be just as willing to pay for these things as we 
are to pay for the things that we buy in the shops. Most 
of us get far more from the Government, in the form of 
benefits and ■ protections provided for us, than we ever 
actually pay for in taxes. 

You will remember also that the Government sometimes 
takes property from the individuals of a community under 
the power of eminent domain, whenever their property is 
needed for the opening of a street or a road, or any other 
public purpose. (See page 40.) But this is very different 
from taking property by taxation. When the Government 
exercises this power of eminent domain, it always pays the 
individual directly in money for the property it takes. In 
the case of taxes, however, the Government pays the indi- 
vidual only indirectly in those general things which it 
undertakes for the common welfare of all. 



84 HOW WE ARE GOVERNED IN VIRGINIA 

60. Taxation in history. It is always true that, next to 
their life and liberty, people dislike more than anything 
else to give up their property. Nothing so quickly in- 
fluences the people of a community against the Govern- 
ment as the feeling that the taxes demanded of them are 
unjust. Two of the greatest questions of all times have 
been : (i) Who shall have the power to impose the taxes? 
(2) How much shall the taxes be? Terrible wars have 
been fought out over these questions. Our own Revolu- 
tionary War arose, you remember, over a dispute in re- 
gard to taxes. Parliament claimed the right to tax the 
colonies. The colonists objected and demanded the right . 
to have a voice in the laying of these taxes. The war 
resulted, and we became an independent nation. 

61. The principles of taxation. Ever since the Revolu- 
tionary War it has been settled in the United States that 
the people alone shall have power to tax themselves. This 
does not mean that each person shall have the power to 
say how much he will or will not pay to the Government. 
Nor does it mean necessarily that all the people must come 
together to determine this question directly. It does mean, 
however, that taxes can be levied only by those whom the 
people themselves choose, and to whom they give the 
power to impose taxes. 

The second principle of taxation is that as nearly as pos- 
sible people shall be taxed according to what they can afford 
to pay. If we look at the benefits which each of us gets 
from the Government, this is perhaps not wholly just. 
The rich man, 'who pays large taxes, receives no more 
benefit from well-kept streets and parks, and from the 
many things which the Government does to protect the 
health of the community, than does the poor man, who 
pays little or no taxes. On the other hand, if the wealthy 



HOW THE GOVERNMENT IS SUPPORTED 85 

citizen owns large property interests, he does receive a 
great deal of protection from the Government which the 
poor citizen, owning no property, does not need. At any 
rate, this plan of taxing the individuals of a community 
according to their ability to pay is the most just principle 
for the levying of taxes that has yet been discovered. 

The third principle in our system of taxes is that taxes 
must be equally and impartially laid. All people of a cer- 
tain class and all property of a certain class must be taxed 
alike. This means that the Government cannot, for in- 
stance, lay a tax of a certain amount on one man's farm or 
factory and refuse to lay a like tax on a similar farm or 
factory belonging to another man. 

These are perhaps the three most important principles of 
taxation. They form the basis of most of our methods of 
raising money for the support of the Government. 

62. Taxes on property: real estate. In every community 
taxes are levied on a great variety of things, but the chief 
thing taxed is property. The law provides that all the 
owners of property shall pay annually to the Government 
a certain per cent of the value of their property. When 
this property consists of land and houses— or real estate, as 
it is called — it is easy to determine who shall pay the taxes 
and usually it is easy to fix the amount to be paid. 

The Government appoints certain officers to estimate 
what the value of each piece of property is. This is called 
assessing the property, and these officers are called 
assessors. The taxes are then paid on the property in 
accordance with its assessed value. 

Naturally it is sometimes difficult to fix the value of a 
given piece of property. In order, therefore, that the 
owner may not be unjustly taxed, property is generally 
assessed at somewhat less than its. actual value. Suppose 



86 HOW WE ARE GOVERNED IN VIRGINIA 

a farm would bring, if sold, about ten thousand dollars. 
The assessors would probably place its valuation at eight 
thousand dollars. If then the rate of taxation was two per 
cent, the owner would be required to pay the Government 
every year two per cent of eight thousand dollars, or one 
hundred and sixty dollars. This custom of assessing 
property below its real value is pretty general, although the 
law requires that property be assessed in full. 

63. Taxes on personal property. Where the individual's 
property consists of farming implements, cattle, furniture, 
jewelry, books, and even money, it becomes very difficult 
to collect the taxes levied upon it. These things are called 
personal property. You can readily understand that it is 
easy for the owners of such property to deceive the officers 
of the Government by refusing to acknowledge all that they 
possess. Unfortunately people cannot be relied upon to 
tell the truth about these things, and the result is that only 
the honest man, who is willing to tell the whole truth, pays 
the full amount of taxes laid on his personal property. With 
lands and houses it is different, for such things cannot be 
hid. In all countries, however, taxes on personal property 
have proved to be more or less a failure. 

64. Other important forms of taxation. 1. Income taxes. 
Not only does the Government in Virginia tax property 
owned by individuals, it also lays a tax on incomes exceed- 
ing six hundred dollars. Many men receive large salaries 
and have other sources from which they get an income, 
although they do not own property. It is not just that 
these men should be entirely free from taxation. This is 
the reason why the Government places a tax on incomes. 
As in the case of personal property, these taxes are difficult 
to collect. The officers of the Government have to rely 
largely on the individual's willingness to declare exactly 



HOW THE GOVERNMENT IS SUPPORTED 87 

what his income is. In order that men receiving small 
salaries may not be taxed, the law provides that six hun- 
dred dollars out of each income shall always be exempt 
from taxation. 

2. License taxes. A tax known as a license is imposed 
by the Government for permission to conduct certain kinds 
of business, as for instance peddling, pawn-broking, and 
saloon-keeping. The object of these licenses is not only to 
get revenue for the Government, but also to regulate the 
business^^Tt is often desirable to prevent too many people 
from undertaking a business which is not helpful to the 
best interests of the community. 

S. Franchise taxes. Certain companies and corporations 
are taxed for privileges which they enjoy. These taxes are 
called franchise taxes. Railroads, for instance, pay such 
taxes for the privilege of operating in the State. The 
street railways, and the telephone and telegraph companies 
pay similar taxes for the use of the streets. 

J/.. The poll-tax. On every male resident of the State a 
tax not exceeeding $1.50 is levied. This is called a poll or 
capitation tax, and no man can vote in Virginia who has 
not paid this tax. (See page 144.) 

5. Special assessments. When streets or alleys are paved, 
and when sewers are laid, it sometimes happens that the 
owners of property bordering along the streets and alleys 
receive more benefit from these improvements than any one 
else in the community. The value of their property is in- 
creased by such improvements, and it seems only just that 
they should be made to pay a part of the expense. The 
Government provides that a special tax shall be levied 
against the owners of such property, and these taxes are 
known as special assessments. The owners cannot, how- 



88 HOW WE ARE GOVERNED IN VIRGINIA 

ever, be taxed beyond the amount by which the value of 
their property is increased because of these improvements. 

65. Property that is not taxed. In every community in 
Virginia certain property is free from taxation. It would 
be absurd for the Government to tax its own property — its 
public buildings, schoolhouses, roads, and streets. This 
would mean only that the Government was paying itself 
taxes. Certain other classes of property also are free from 
taxation. Public libraries, colleges, and other educational 
institutions, church buildings and ministers' residences, the 
property belonging to Young Men's Christian Associations 
and charitable institutions — all of these are free from the 
tax laws. Such property as this is not taxed because, 
although private in its character, it is in reality used for the 
benefit of the whole community. 

66. General and local taxes. Some of these taxes we 
have been discussing are laid upon property and other 
things in all parts of the State. These are imposed by the 
Government of the State for the purpose of carrying on 
those affairs in which the whole State is concerned — that 
is, for the support of the State Government. In addition 
to these general taxes, each community levies taxes for 
community purposes. The counties impose taxes in order 
to meet the expenses of the county Government — to pay 
the salaries of county officers, to build roads, to maintain 
schools. (See chapter XIII.) The cities impose taxes to 
pay the salaries of city officers, and to meet the many other 
expenses of the city Government. (See chapter XIV.) 
Taxes in cities are usually much higher than they are in 
the counties, because of the many different things which 
city communities find it necessary to undertake — things 
which benefit no one beyond the city limits. We shall 
understand this difference between State and local taxes 



HOW THE GOVERNMENT IS SUPPORTED 89 

r fully a little later m our study. 1 See page 97. The 
important thing for you to remember is that a part of the 
taxes we pay goes to the support of our State Government, 
and another part to the support of our community Govern- 
ment. 

This is only a brief outline of the general system of taxa- 
tion in Virginia. It will serve to show you. however, 
some of the ways by which the Government is enable 
get sufficient money to carry on all those operations which 
it undertakes 1 for the benefit of the people. 

QUESTIONS FOR CLASS DISCUSSION 

1. Has any public building been erected in your community re- 
cently? Try to find out how much it cost. Did the county, cifc 
State pay for the building? Why? Try to find out how the money 

raised. E -his build: ed for the f the 

people of your community. 

2. How is money raised for the improvement of roads in your 
county? Try to find out what the tax tnent for roads is. 
Who determ:- -:-::-r.: : 

3. How are the -choc.- supported in your county? Try to rind 
out what the school assessment is. Have any new schoolhouses 
been built recently- How much did tl rind out 
what part oi the school expenses are paid by your county authori- 
ties and what part by the Si 

1. In what ways that you can think of do people in your com- 
munity receive benefits from the taxes they pay' Explain why it is 
dishonest to av :ng taxes. Explain why it is wrong to look 

upon taxes as oppression. 

5. What part did the question of taxation play in the causes of our 
Revolutionary War? What principle of taxation was in conse- 
quence established in Ameri 

6. In what ways that you can think of does the owner of prop- 
erty get special benefits by paying the large taxes that are assessed 
upon him? 



9 o HOW WE ARE GOVERNED IN VIRGINIA 

7. What is the difference between real estate and personal prop- 
erty? Do you own any real estate? Any personal property? Ex- 
plain why it is easier to collect taxes on the one than it is on the 
other. 

8. What is meant by assessing property for taxation? Try to find 
out whether property in your community is said to be assessed high 
or low. What does this mean? 

9. W r hat property that you can think of in your community is free 
from taxation? Why is it not taxed? Is your school building 
taxed? Why? 

to. Mention the other forms of taxation in Virginia, and explain 
what is meant by each. 



CHAPTER VIII 

WHAT THE CONSTITUTION IS 

67. The origin of the Constitution. You will all remem- 
ber, no doubt, that during the period of our history before 
the Revolutionary War, each of the thirteen colonies in 
America w^s— under the control of the crown or the Par- 
liament of England. The colony exercised only those 
rights and powers which the English Government per- 
mitted. That Government also determined very largely 
how its laws should be made and appointed the colonial 
Governor. Under this system the colonists actually en- 
joyed a large degree of self-government — that is to say, 
they were permitted to make most of the laws by which 
they were governed and to choose most of their govern- 
mental officers. 

Up to 1775, when the Revolutionary War broke out, 
Virginia was governed in this manner. The war, however, 
freed the colonies from the control of the mother country ; 
and the colonists were forced to provide some other form 
of government. Lord Dunmore, the colonel Governor, 
fled for his life; the House of Burgesses, the law-making 
body of the colony, dissolved itself ; and the old Govern- 
ment passed away. Something had to be clone, for the 
people could not exist without any Government. And 
this is what happened. In May, 1776, a convention com- 
posed of two delegates from each county in Virginia met 
at Williamsburg and drew up a document providing for a 
form of government very similar to that which had existed 
during the colonial period. This written document desig- 

9i 



92 HOW WE ARE GOVERNED IN VIRGINIA 

nated what officers should be chosen and how they should 
be chosen, what powers these officers should have, and who 
should make and administer the laws. This is what we 
mean by a Constitution. It is a written document framed, 
hi/ delegates representing the whole people of the State 
and providing in outline the organization of the Government. 

This Constitution was adopted on the 29th of June, 1776, 
five days before the Declaration of Independence was 
passed. So far as history records, it was the first written 
Constitution of a permanent character ever framed in 
America, or indeed in any country. What did it mean? 
It meant simply this : that the power to determine the 
form of Government in Virginia, which before had be- 
longed to the English crown, now belonged to the people. 
Of course it was impossible for the whole people of the 
State to meet together and draw up this Constitution. So 
a convention representing the people undertook the task. 

68. The history of Virginia's Constitutions. There were 
naturally many defects in this first Constitution, framed in 
such haste at the outbreak of our war for independence. 
It is marvelous indeed that it was strong enough to last 
fifty-four years. Its two chief defects were: (1) Only 
men of considerable property could vote or hold office. As 
Thomas Jefferson ironically remarked, the Government of 
Virginia was in the hands of those who were "distinguished 
by the luxury and ostentation of their establishments." 
(2) The people in the different parts of the State were not 
equally represented in the law-making body — that is, they 
did not enjoy an equal share in their own Government. As 
time went on, these defects became more and more un- 
bearable. 

Soon after the Revolutionary War adventurers began to 
push in large numbers across the Alleghany Mountains 



WHAT THE CONSTITUTION IS 



93 



into what is now West Virginia, but was then an unsettled 
wilderness. This movement of population during the early 
years of the nineteenth century was very rapid. By 1815 
two-fifths of the white population lived beyond the moun- 
tains. They were for the most part poor pioneers. Few 
of them owned enough property to vote. There were few 
large plantations and few slaves. In fact, the whole char- 
acter of these people differed from that of the inhabitants of 
the easteprr^part of the State. Under the Constitution of 
1776 they had little share in the Government. They were 
allowed to hold almost no offices, and they did not have a 
fair representation in the body which made laws for the 
State. 

For years the people of western Virginia clamored for 
changes in the Constitution. But it was only after a long 
and bitter struggle that a convention finally met at Rich- 
mond in the winter of 1829-30 and drew up a new Consti- 
tution. This second Constitution did not prove very satis- 
factory, however, and in 1850-51 a third Constitution was 
framed by a convention representing the people of the 
State. 

The Constitution of 185 1 lasted throughout the period of 
the War between the States. This war, as you all know, 
wrought great changes in the South. It was during the 
terrible period of reconstruction, in December, 1867, that 
the fourth constitutional convention came together. It did 
not represent the people of Virginia. Its membership was 
composed almost entirely of Northerners and of recently 
freed negroes. The Constitution which they adopted was 
known as the Underwood Constitution, taking its name 
from the president of the convention. It was by no means 
wholly bad, however, and the people of Virginia lived 



94 



HOW WE ARE GOVERNED IN VIRGINIA 



under it, with a few changes, for a period of more than 
thirty years. 

69. Our present Constitution. In 1901-02 our fifth and 
last convention met and framed the Constitution under 
which we now live. The chief reforms which the people 
felt it was necessary to make were: (1) a reduction in the 
number of officers in the State, and consequently in the 
expenses of the Government; and (2) the placing of new 
conditions upon the right to vote. (See page 144.) 

Our present Constitution is a long document, covering 
many printed pages. The convention which framed it sat 
for twelve months fully and carefully considering the great 
work before them. The Constitution provides in detail 
how the Government shall be organized ; it enumerates all 
the chief officers of the Government and outlines their 
powers and -duties ; it determines who shall have the right 
to vote and hold the various offices; and it provides for 
local Governments in the different communities of the 
State. It is the duty of the law-making body to pass such 
laws as may be necessary for carrying out the scheme of 
Government provided for in the Constitution. 

70. The importance of the Constitution. When we were 
discussing how our liberties are protected in the commu- 
nity, (see chapter IV), we learned that we possess certain 
rights which not even the Government can deny to us. 
This is because the powers of the Government are restricted 
by the Constitution. (See page 43.) The Government 
can pass no law and do no act which violates the Consti- 
tution. It is the highest law of the State. It is because 
of this importance that the people of the State will not 
trust the ordinary law-making body to change the Consti- 
tution. Such changes must be submitted to a vote of the 
people. And in case a new Constitution is needed, a 



WHAT THE CONSTITUTION IS 95 

special convention must be called for the purpose of draw- 
ing it up. 

In the chapters which follow we shall see how the 
machinery of the Government is organized under this 
recent Constitution, and how the Government is enabled to 
assist the people of Virginia in so many ways. It will be 
unnecessary, therefore, for us to consider here in detail the 
splendid work of that convention which met in Richmond 
in 1901-02 and determined upon our present form of gov- 
ernment.^ 

QUESTIONS FOR CLASS DISCUSSION 

1. How were we governed in Virginia during the colonial period? 
Who determined our form of Government Were we permitted to 
make any of our laws? To choose any of our officers? How did 
the Revolutionary War change our situation? 

2. Who determines our form of Government today? How is this 
done? What is meant by a Constitution? How many Constitu- 
tions have we had in Virginia? How were these Constitutions 
drawn up? 

3. Explain how the Constitution protects our liberties. Against 
whom are they protected? How may the Constitution be changed? 
Why may our law-makers not change it 

4. When was our present Constitution framed? By whom was it 
framed? Find out. if you can, the names of any of the members of 
the convention of 1901-02. Who represented your county or city? 



CHAPTER IX 

HOW THE GOVERNMENT IS ORGANIZED 

71. What is meant by the departments of Government. 

From the very beginning of constitutional Government 
in America the people have believed that the laws ought 
not to be made, explained, and put into operation by the 
same men or group of men. Whenever so much power is 
given over, to one group of men, there is danger that they 
will oppress the people. It is an important principle of 
our Government, therefore, that there shall be one group 
of men to make the laws, another group to put them into 
operation, and a third group to explain or interpret what 
the laws mean. These three groups of officers form the 
three great departments of Government. Those who make 
the laws are known as the Legislative Department. Those 
who see that the laws are carried out, or executed, com- 
pose the Executive Department. And those whose duty it 
is to determine what the law means when it is applied to a 
particular case are the Judicial Department. 

72. The State Government. As you all know, some of 
the duties which the Government undertakes to perform 
concern the people of the State as a whole. Take, for 
instance, laws that provide for the punishment of criminals. 
A crime is just as likely to be committed in one part of the 
State as in another. It is very clear, therefore, that all the 
people are concerned in such laws. This is only a single 
instance among a great many matters in which the people 
of the whole State have a common interest and concern. 

96 



HOW THE GOVERNMENT IS ORGANIZED 97 

You see that it would never do for any particular county 
or city to make laws for itself in regard to matters of so 
great importance. This must be done by the Government 
which represents the people of the whole State. We call 
this the State Government. It is this Government which 
makes most of the laws that we must obey ; and as we have 
seen, it is supported by levying taxes upon the people of 
the whole State. (See page 88.) 

73. LocaJkGSvernment. The city. You can easily think 
of many things undertaken by the Government in city 
communities which do not concern the people of the whole 
State. Take, for example, the laws in regard to keeping 
the streets clean. This is a matter which does not at all 
affect the people in the country districts, or even people of 
any other city. The cities of Virginia have many duties 
to perform which are purely of local interest. They are 
permitted, therefore, to have Governments of their own for 
the management of city affairs, and to make such local 
regulations as may be necessary. 

The county. You probably know of many things also 
that are of chief concern to the county undertaking them, 
The building of roads, for instance, is a matter in which 
the people of each particular county are especially in- 
terested. It is looked upon, therefore, as a matter which 
should be undertaken and controlled largely by the coun- 
ties. The conditions of the rural districts are very differ- 
ent from those of the cities. For this reason the Constitu- 
tion provides for another kind of local Government to be 
established in the counties. 

The town. Still another form of Government is pro- 
vided for towns. Their inhabitants live more closely to- 
gether than do the residents of counties, but towns are not 



98 HOW WE ARE GOVERNED IN VIRGINIA 

so large as cities and do not find it necessary to have such 
complicated governments. (See page 139.) 

We see, therefore, that under the State Government, 
which regulates the affairs of the whole State, there are 
three forms of local Government — the city, the town, and 
the county. To these local Governments, the Constitu- 
tion and the State legislature give certain powers to regu- 
late local affairs ; and as we have seen, they are supported 
by taxes raised for local purposes. Xot only the State 
Government but the local Governments also are divided 
into the three great departments — legislative, executive, 
and judicial. Local laws are made, enforced, and inter- 
preted by three separate groups of officers. 

QUESTIONS FOR CLASS DISCUSSION 

1. Which of the three kinds of local Government has your com- 
munity? Mention some of the things undertaken in your commu- 
nity which seem to you to be of local rather than State interest. 
Why are local Governments necessary? W T hy are there three forms? 
How are they supported? Mention any officers of your community 
that you know of. 

2. Why is the State Government necessary? Who determines the 
powers and duties of the local Governments? Does the progress of 
your community depend more largely upon the State or your local 
Government? Mention any officers of the State Government that 
you know of. 

3. Would the State Government or your local Government be most 
likely to make laws on the following subjects: (a) the paving of_ 
streets? (b) the building of a schoolhouse? (c) the regulating of a 
poorhouse? (d) riding bicycles on the sidewalks? (e) fire-escapes 
on buildings? (f) the placing of wires underground? (g) the speed 
of street cars? (h) the fencing in of farms and lots? (i) vaccina- 
tion? (j) the sale of liquors? (k) posting bills on trees or posts? 
(1) the repairing of roads? (m) the building of a court-house? 



CHAPTER X 

HOW THE LAWS ARE MADE 

74. The legislature, or law-making body. In Virginia 
the branch of the Government that makes the laws for the 
State is divided into two bodies, or houses, as they are 
called. Eve^y- measure proposed in either one of these 
houses must be agreed to by the other before it becomes a 
law. This prevents laws from being hastily made. One 
of these houses is known as the House of Delegates and 
the other as the Senate. Together they constitute the 
legislature of the State and are known as the General 
Assembly of Virginia. 

The Constitution prescribes that the House of Delegates 
shall never consist of less than ninety or more than one 
hundred members, and that the whole number of senators 
shall not exceed forty or be less than thirty-three. The 
House of Delegates is, therefore, much larger than the 
Senate. For the purpose of electing delegates, the entire 
State is divided into house districts. The General Assem- 
bly itself determines what counties and cities shall be 
grouped together to form a district, as well as the number 
of delegates to be elected in each district. As nearly as 
possible each delegate represents the same number of 
people. Populous districts, whether consisting of a single 
large city or county, or of a group of counties and cities, 
are given more than one delegate, but the majority of dis- 
tricts have only one. The members of the House of Dele- 
gates i -e elected by the voters of their districts once every 
two yei *s, in November. 

C.FC. * 



IOO HOW WE ARE GOVERNED IN VIRGINIA 

For the purpose of electing senators, the State is also 
divided into senatorial districts; but since the Senate is 
smaller than the lower house, these districts are much 
larger than the house districts, or else they have fewer 
senators than delegates. The apportionment is made, 
however, so that the senators, like the delegates, represent 
about the same number of people each. Senators are 
elected at the same time that delegates are chosen, but once 
only in four years. Thus a senator holds office twice as 
long as a delegate. 

The General Assembly meets in the January following 
the November elections — that is, once in every two years. In 
the past it has sometimes happened that the legislature, 
when it came together, would dally over the making of laws 
for a long period of time without accomplishing very much. 
This was a great expense to the people of the State, since 
law-makers are paid for their time and services. The Con- 
stitution now requires that the General Assembly shall 
close its session after sixty days. In case of necessity, 
however, the session may be extended thirty days longer, 
providing three-fifths of the members of each house agree 
to the extension. Moreover, extra sessions may be called 
by the Governor under extraordinary circumstances. 

75. How the General Assembly is organized for business. 
The Constitution gives each house of the General Assembly 
the power to choose its own officers, and to determine the 
rules by -which its debates and other affairs must be con- 
ducted. The one exception to this is that the Lieutenant- 
Governor of the State (see page in) must preside over the 
Senate. The presiding officer of the House of De^gates 
is called the Speaker. His position is one of great* impor- 
tance and influence, for it is he who chooses t 1 - com- 
mittees to report on laws that are proposed. In addition to 



HOW THE LAWS ARE MADE 



IOI 



the presiding officer there are a number of other officers 
and clerks in each house. 

Each member has his own desk, and these desks are 
arranged in rows facing the presiding officer's chair. Visi- 
tors are usually prohibited from coming upon the "floor" 
of the House. Galleries are provided, however, to which 
the public is freely admitted. 




The Hall of the House of Delegates 



76. How a measure becomes a law. Nearly every mem- 
ber who is elected to the General Assembly comes with the 
idea of getting certain measures enacted into laws. Some- 
times the people who elect him express their desire to have 
this or that law passed. Sometimes an individual citizen 



102 HOW WE ARE GOVERNED IN VIRGINIA 

asks a member to present a proposition for a law. Fre- 
quently also the Governor and the other important officers, 
who are thoroughly in touch with the needs of the State, 
desire certain laws enacted. 

Formerly when the business of the Government was less 
complicated than it is to-day, it was the usual custom for 
any member to propose a measure and have it discussed 
before the house. As time went on, however, and busi- 
ness increased, it became necessary to adopt some other 
method. It was found that the time of the legislature was 
consumed in the discussion of many unimportant propo- 
sitions, w T hile others of vital interest were delayed because 
of the general confusion and the lack of time. The system 
adopted to remedy this evil is known as the committee 
system. Let us see what the committee system means. 

Each member of either house still has the right to intro- 
duce any measure that he sees fit. The measure when in- 
troduced, instead of being taken up at once for debate, is 
referred to an appropriate committee. Provision is made 
for a number of standing committees in each house, and 
each committee has for its consideration measures that 
relate to one particular department of the Government's 
work. In the committee room the proposed measure is 
talked over and worked over. Later the committee 
makes a report to the house, recommending either that 
the measure be passed or that it be voted down. 

When the committee reports a measure, it comes be- 
fore the house in the form of a bill. The house opens 
debate en the bill after it has been printed and read on three 
separate days. The bill may be changed by the house 
in any way, or it may be rejected. The house is largely 
influenced, however, by the report of the committee which 
has made a special investigation of the subject. In case 



HOW THE LAWS ARE MADE 



103 



the bill is passed in one house, it must then be sent to the 
other house where it may be approved or voted down. 

This is the manner in which every measure proceeds 
through the legislature. The committee system makes it 
possible to handle many propositions in the short term of 
sixty days. It also provides for a careful consideration of 
every proposal. 

77. What the legislature may and may not do. The 
General Assembly may p^ss any law which it is not for- 
bidden by the Constitution! to pass, or which does not con- 
flict with the laws made by the national Government at 
Washington. It is necessary for the Constitution to 
specify only those things which the legislature may not do. 
Chief among the restrictions placed upon the legislature 
are those which secure to the people certain privileges, 
such as the freedom of speech and religion, and the right 
not to have property taken from them by the Government 
without just compensation. (See chapter IV.) 

The legislature is also prohibited from passing what is 
know as "special acts" in regard to a long series of sub- 
jects. This is to prevent the time of the law-makers from 
being taken up in enacting laws for a particular locality, 
or a special individual, and also to secure to every person 
in the State equal rights before the law. 

Aside from these restrictions upon the powers of the 
legislature, the General Assembly may pass any act it 
pleases. It is not necessary for us to examine in detail 
what the nature of these laws is. It is sufficient to say that 
they regulate, among numerous other things, business rela- 
tions, property relations, and the marriage relations of the 
people of the State, and provide for the raising of taxes, 
the educational interests, and the affairs of railways and 
other corporations. 



104 H0W WE ARE GOVERNED IN VIRGINIA 

78. Where the legislature meets. Long ago you learned 
in your study of geography that Richmond is the capital of 
the State of Virginia. This means that the General Assem- 
bly and the principal offices of the State Government are 
located at Richmond. In a handsome park, beautifully 
laid out and containing many splendid statues and monu- 
ments, stands the capitol building in which the legisla- 
ture holds its sessions. (See frontispiece.) The central 
portion of this building was built in 1833. Within its walls 
have been heard some of the most distinguished men that 
have figured in the history of the United States. Here, 
too, the Congress of the Confederacy sat. Because of its 
age and the many historical associations that cluster about 
it, this building has become very dear to the people of Vir- 
ginia. With the growth of the business of the Govern- 
ment, however, it became entirely inadequate, and a few 
years ago it was found necessary to add two large wings to 
the central structure. The original building was preserved, 
and the increased needs of the Government were provided 
for by the additions. 

79. Influences upon the law-makers. When a man has 
been chosen to the legislature as the representative of 
some community of the State, many people suppose that it 
is a very simple matter for him to determine what measures 
will be for the best interests of the people, and for him 
alwalys to vote honestly and intelligently. Perhaps it 
ought to be, but as a matter of fact a great many influences 
are brought to bear upon members of the legislature of 
which most of us know very little. In the first place, a 
member usually desires to be re-elected at the end of his 
term of office. Sometimes the voters who have elected 
him are controlled by a man known as the political boss 
of the community. The member realizes that he must, to 



HOW THE LAWS ARE MADE 105 

some extent at least, act so as to please this boss if he is to 
hope for re-election. 

Then again, when a measure is proposed that is disad- 
vantageous to some large corporation, or to the people 
engaged in a certain kind of Dusiness (as for instance the 
liquor business;, all sorts of efforts are made to induce the 
law-makers to ignore the interests of the people. Shrewd 
lawvers and other crafty men are sent to Richmond to use 
their influence upon the <! members of the legislature, and 
to convince them, if possible, that the proposed measure is 
not for the interests of the people. This is called lobbying. 
Many bad laws are made, and many good measures fail to 
be enacted by reason of the influence which unscrupulous 
lobbyists frequently use. You must not think, however, 
that all lobbying is of this sort. Many good men also go 
before the committees of the legislature and lobby with its 
members to secure the passage of wise laws. 

Again, the law-makers are severely criticised by the 
newspapers, and sometimes this criticism is unjust. It is 
a very difficult matter for a man in public life to please 
everybody and to do only what is right. Our law-makers 
have no easy task. If some of them do not serve the peo- 
ple as they should, we ought to remember that we are 
partly responsible for this. It is the duty of the people in 
every community to choose as their representatives in the 
law-making body of the State the most intelligent and the 
most honorable men that can be induced to serve. And it 
is the duty of the member thus chosen to follow his sound 
judgment on every question before him. He should con- 
sider always only the best interests of the State, regardless 
of his personal ambitions, and in spite of the influences 
which seek at times to turn him aside. 



106 HOW WE ARE GOVERNED IN VIRGINIA 

QUESTIONS FOR CLASS DISCUSSION 

1. What is the law-making body of the State of Virginia called? 
Into what two bodies is it divided? Does your city or county con- 
stitute a house district by itself? If not, find out what other com- 
munities are grouped with it to form your house district. Find out. 
if you can, how many representatives your district has in the House 
of Delegates. Do you know the names of any present representa- 
tives? 

2. If you live in a county, find out what other counties are 
grouped with yours to form your senatorial district. If you live in 
a city, find out if your city constitutes a senatorial district by itself. 
If not, what other communities are grouped with it? Find out, if 
you can, the name of the present senator, or senators, from your 
district. 

3. Who presides over the Senate? Over the House of Delegates? 
Have you ever been to the capitol building at Richmond? If so, 
describe the park. Describe the building. If you have seen the 
chambers in which the houses meet, describe them. (See page 100.) 
Have you ever seen the houses in session? 

4. Suppose you desired to have a certain law passed, how would 
you go about it? Explain in full how such a measure would 
become a law after being introduced into one of the houses by some 
member. What is meant by the committee system? 

5. What is meant by a political boss? What is meant by lobbying? 
Explain how the bosses and lobbyists hinder and corrupt the law- 
makers. How can the people of any community prevent this? 

6. When does the next General Assembly meet? How long will 
it probably sit? Might it sit longer? Why is the length of the 
sessions of the General Assembly limited by the Constitution? 



CHAPTER XI 

HOW THE LAWS ARE PUT INTO OPERATION 

80. The chief executive officers. After the laws have 
been passed by the legislature, it is necessary that there 
should be officers to see\ that these laws are carried out. 
The enforcement of both State and local laws is intrusted 
very largely to local officers chosen in the various commu- 
nities of the State. Take, for example, the assessment and 
collection of the taxes imposed by the General Assembly ; 
these matters are attended to by county and city officers. 
It is the city police or the county constables who arrest 
offenders who violate the laws of the State that protect life 
and property. In the actual enforcement of the laws, the 
individual in any community usually comes in contact with 
county and city officers rather than State officers. In 
addition to these, however, there are certain officers at 
Richmond whose duty it is to see that the various acts of 
the General Assembly are properly executed. 

Chief among the State officers is the Governor. We 
look upon him as the head of the executive department of 
the Government — that is, the department which puts the 
laws into operation. (See page 96.) But the Governor is 
not the only executive officer of the State. Certain duties 
and powers are assigned to other officers. Among the 
most important of these are the Lieutenant-Governor, the 
Secretary of the Commonwealth, the Attorney General, the 
State Treasurer, the State Auditor, the State Superintend- 
ent of Public Instruction, and numerous commissions and 

107 



io8 



HOW WE ARE GOVERNED IN VIRGINIA 



boards. Let us see how these various officers are chosen 
and what their duties and pow r ers are. 

81. The Governor. We in Virginia have had a Governor 
ever since the colony was first established. During the 
colonial period the position of Governor was one of great 
dignity and importance, but many of the colonial Governors 
were hated by the colonists. They were appointed by the 




A Section of Capitol Square, Richmond, Virginia 

Showing the West entrance of the Capitol Building-, in which most of the 

State executive offices are located. The Governor's mansion 

is seen dimly in the background. 

crown in England, and frequently they opposed the colo- 
nists and sought to govern them with an iron hand. 

After our independence was won, the Governor of Vir- 
ginia was for many years chosen by the General Assembly ; 
but the people were afraid to give him any great amount 
of power. They did not stop to think that there is a great 
difference between a Governor chosen by their own repre- 



HOW THE LAWS ARE EXECUTED 



109 



sentatives in the legislature and a Governor named by a 
king more than three thousand miles away. His position, 
however, continued to be one of social importance. Even 
today the Governor of Virginia is spoken of as k 'His 
Excellency," while the President of the United States is 
only "Mr. President." Since 185 1 the Governor has been 
elected directly by the people. His position today is not 
only one of great dignity/ but of great influence in the 
affairs of the State Government. 

82. Powers and duties of the Governor. The Gover- 
nor's powers and duties are outlined in the Constitution of 
the State. From time to time also the legislature lays 
duties upon him in connection with the work of carrying 
out the laws. The Constitution says that he "shall take 
care that the laws be faithfully executed." This does not 
mean that he is to superintend every policeman or other 
minor officer whose duty it is to execute the laws. It 
means simply that he shall stand ready to use the forces 
at his command in order that the laws shall be properly 
observed throughout the State. The Governor's powers 
and duties are various. Perhaps it may be well for us to 
classify them : 

1. The Governor's power over legislation. By reason of 
his position at the head of the Government, the Governor 
is usually more or less in touch with the needs of the State, 
and with matters which ought to be brought to the atten- 
tion of the General Assembly. He is required, therefore, 
to send a message to the legislature when it assembles. 
In this message he recommends certain measures which 
he thinks ought to be made laws. During the session 
of the General Assembly he is usually in constant 
communication with the law-makers and gives them his 
advice upon measures and bills that come up for con- 



HO HOW WE ARE GOVERNED IN VIRGINIA 

sideration. He is empowered also, in case he deems it 
necessary, to call at any time an extra session of the Gen- 
eral Assembly. Before any bill that has passed both 
houses of the legislature can become a law, it must be 
signed by the Governor. If he does not approve the 
bill, he may refuse to sign it — or, as this is generally called, 
he may veto it and return it to the legislature with his 
objections to the measure. In case the Governor vetoes a 
bill, it cannot become a law unless it is again passed in 
both houses of the legislature by a majority vote of two- 
thirds. You see, therefore, that the Governor possesses a 
great deal of power and influence over the making of our 
laws. 

2. The Governor s power to supervise other officers. It is 
the duty of the Governor to keep himself informed as to 
how the other officers of the State are performing their 
duties. He may require any information of them, or he 
may at any time inspect their books. When the General 
Assembly is not in session (and you remember that the 
legislature usually convenes only for sixty days every two 
years), he has the power to suspend any officer of the State, 
except the Lieutenant-Governor, for misbehavior or be- 
cause he is not properly performing his duty. He is re- 
quired to report the whole circumstances of the suspen- 
sion to the next General Assembly. 

3. The Governor's power over the militia. In the various 
communities of the State, volunteer militia companies are 
formed, and citizens residing in these communities, usually 
the young men, become members of these companies. 
These constitute together what is known as the militia of 
the State. Ordinarily they have no active duties to per- 
form. Sometimes, however, when a riot breaks out, or a 
mob arises, or a strike becomes threatening, it is the 



HOW THE LAWS ARE EXECUTED m 

duty of the Governor to call out the militia and send them 
in haste to the scene of the disorder. (See page 2J.) By 
the Constitution he is made commander-in-chief of the 
military forces of the State. 

4. The Governor's pardoning power. Sometimes persons 
are convicted of crime against the laws of the State and are 
sentenced to punishment. For one reason or another it 
may be brought to the Governor's attention that a person 
so convicted ought not to tsie punished to the full extent of 
his sentence. The Governor has the power to pardon, to 
shorten the sentence, or to remit the fine of any one con- 
victed of violating the law. He does this only in ex- 
ceptional cases ; he does not allow those who ought to be 
punished to play upon his sympathies. But when once a 
case has been finally decided in the courts (see page 117), it 
is impossible for the courts to take it up again; and it is 
very necessary and proper that some one should have the 
power to pardon. 

From what has been said you can see that the Governor 
has large powers and many important duties to perform. 
He must be a man of great force and great ability. Not 
only this, but the Constitution requires that he shall be a 
citizen of the United States, thirty years old, and that he 
shall have resided in Virginia for five years preceding his 
election. He is elected by the people for a term of four 
years. At the same time that he is elected, another officer 
called the Lieutenant-Governor is chosen, who, in case the 
Governor dies or for any reason is unable to perform his 
duties, takes the place of the Governor. 

83. The duties of the other executive officers. 1. The 
Secretary of the Commonwealth's duty is to assist the Gov- 
ernor in various ways and to keep a record of his acts. He 
is chosen by the people of the State at the same time and 



112 HOW WE ARE GOVERNED IN VIRGINIA 

for the same term as the Governor. Certain other duties 
are laid upon him by law, but it is unnecessary for our pur- 
poses to inquire into them. 2. The Attorney General is 
elected by the people at the same time and for the same 
term as the Governor. He is the chief law-officer of the 
State. It is his duty to give his opinion to the other officers 
on questions of law, and in case the State of Virginia sues 
or is sued he represents the State before the courts. 3. The 
State Treasurer is also chosen by the people and has the 
power to pay out from the treasury of the State such 
money as he may be properly authorized to pay. Jf.. The 
State Auditor, who is chosen not by the people but by the 
General Assembly, receives the money collected by the tax 
collectors in the various communities of the State and 
deposits it in the State treasury. He has many other im- 
portant duties connected with the collection of taxes and 
has charge of all claims made against the State. It is the 
Auditor, therefore, who, in most cases, issues the orders 
upon which the Treasurer makes payments. There is also 
a Second Auditor who has many duties to perform in con- 
nection with the financial matters of the State. 5. The 
Commissioner of Agriculture and Immigration is elected by 
the people at the same time and for the same term as the 
Governor. He is assisted and directed by a Board of 
Agriculture and Immigration, the members of which are 
appointed by the Governor. It is his duty to gather in- 
formation in regard to the climate, soil, crops, and minerals 
of the State, and to give this information to farmers and 
others desiring it. He encourages and assists the farmer 
and cattle-raiser, and he endeavors to show to people out- 
side the State the advantages of settling in Virginia. 

84. How the public school system is organized. The 
chief executive officer of the public school system in Vir- 



HOW THE LAWS ARE EXECUTED 113 

ginia is the Superintendent of Public Instruction. He is 
elected by the people at the same time and for the same 
term as the Governor. His duties are so numerous and 
varied that it would be impossible to describe them briefly. 
He exercises a general supervision over the entire public 
school system of the State and seeks in every way to en- 
courage the improvement of schools and to awaken interest 
in public education. He) exerts his influence with the 
legislature to secure appropriations for the schools and to 
have wise laws enacted in the interest of the public school 
system. 

The Superintendent is assisted and directed by the 
State Board of Education. This Board consists of the 
Superintendent of Public Instruction (w T ho is its president), 
the Governor, the Attorney General, three members chosen 
from the faculties of the State institutions of higher learn- 
ing (see page 58), and one county and one city superin- 
tendent of schools. The Board possesses large powers 
over the educational system of the State, having "authority 
to make all needful rules and regulations for the manage- 
ment and conduct of the schools." 

The Superintendent of Public Instruction is also assisted 
in many ways by the State Board of Examiners. This board 
consists of five men appointed by the Board of Education. 
For the work of this board the entire State is divided into 
five circuits, one of which is assigned to each examiner. It 
is the duty of the examiners to examine and issue licenses 
to those who desire to teach in the public schools. They 
also travel about in their circuits holding teachers' insti- 
tutes and forming citizens' leagues for the purpose of 
arousing interest in, and advancing the cause of, public 
education. 

The State Superintendent, the State Board of Educa- 



1 1 4 HOW WE ARE GOVERNED IN VIRGINIA 

tion, and the Board of Examiners are the principal State 
executive officers of the school system. In addition to 
these, there are in each community of the State local 
officers whose duty it is to supervise and provide for the 
schools. Let us see how the local school authorities are 
organized. 

In each community there is a local superintendent called 
the division superintendent. His appointment is made by 
the State Board of Education and approved by a vote of 
the Senate. He has the power to supervise and regulate, 
in accordance with the rules laid down by the Board of 
Education, all the schools in his division. Usually his 
division consists of a single county or city; but sometimes 
two counties or a county and a city are placed under one 
division superintendent. 

Each county of the State is divided into a number of 
school districts. The division superintendent, the com- 
monwealth's attorney (see page 129), and one resident of 
the county appointed by the judge of the circuit court (see 
page 118) choose the school trustees for each district. This 
district board of trustees appoints teachers for the district 
and otherwise looks after the interests of the schools. The 
w T hole number of district trustees in any one county con- 
stitute the county school board, whose duty it is to assist and 
direct the division superintendent. 

The members of the city school board are either elected 
by the people or by the city council (see page 138) and have 
powers similar to those of the county school board. 

You see, therefore, that Virginia has provided an 
elaborate system of officers for the regulation of matters 
relating to the public schools. A part of the money for 
the support of the schools is annually appropriated by the 
General Assembly and distributed by the State Department 



HOW THE LAWS ARE EXECUTED 115 

of Public Instruction. A substantial sum is also realized 
from the interest on the Literary Fund. (See page 51.) 
But a much larger part must be raised by local taxation. 
In many communities also the schools are assisted by 
endowments and subscriptions made by private individuals. 
Indeed the efficiency of the schools in any community is 
dependent largely upon the willingness of the people of 
thai community to pay for the improvement of the schools. 



QUESTIONS FOR CLASS DISCUSSION 

1. If the General Assembly lays a tax upon certain property 
throughout the State, what officers in your community would put this 
law into execution? If a man commits a crime in your community, 
is he arrested by a local or a State officer? Has he violated a local 
or a State law? 

2. Who is the present Governor of Virginia? How and when was 
he chosen? How much longer has he to serve? Do you know any- 
thing about his life? What qualifications as to age, citizenship, and 
residence must he possess? 

3. What is meant by the Governor's message? Why does trie law 
require him to send a message? What is meant by his veto? How 
may it be overcome? 

4. What control does the Governor have over the other executive 
officers? What is his position in the militia? What is meant by 
his pardoning power? If he should die in office, who would suc- 
ceed him ? What duty has the Lieutenant-Governor? (See page 101.) 

5. Mention some of the other executive officers at Richmond. 
Tell how each of them is chosen and what you know of their re- 
spective duties. 

6. Describe how the public school system of the State is organ- 
ized. Who is the present Superintendent of Public Instruction? 
When and how was he chosen? 

7. Who is the Superintendent of Schools in your county or city? 
How is he chosen? What are his duties? What is the county or city 
school board? Do you know any of its members in your com- 
munity? Who appoints teachers in your community? 



CHAPTER XII 

HOW THE LAWS ARE EXPLAINED AXD 
APPLIED 

85. The necessity for courts of law. We have already 
seen how the laws in Virginia are framed and passed by the 
General Assembly. We have seen, too, that there is a 
group of officers, with the Governor at their head, whose 
duty it is to put these laws into execution. These legis- 
lative and executive departments of the Government, how- 
ever, are not sufficient completely to carry out the plan of 
the Government. 

You can easily understand how people will sometimes 
differ in opinion as to what the law really means, and how 
laws may sometimes conflict with one another. Moreover, 
it is often very difficult to find out the truth about a matter 
to which the law is supposed to apply. For instance, a 
dispute may arise as to which of two parties owns a piece 
of property ; each party may claim that he has the 'right to 
it under the law. Similar disputes might arise over a debt, 
or over an agreement or contract between two parties. 
These disputes may be very complicated, involving many 
points to be considered. 

Suppose a man is accused of some offense against the 
laws of the State, as for instance, robbery or murder. 
Whatever punishment is to be inflicted upon him will de- 
pend on two things. First, it will depend on the facts of 
the case, involving the question of whether he really com- 
mitted the crime, and if so, whether it was partially or 

116 



HOW THE LAWS ARE APPLIED 117 

wholly justifiable. Second, it will depend on what par- 
ticular law in regard to punishment will apply to the cir- 
cumstances under which the crime was committed. 

Now it must be very clear to you that every time an 
attempt is made to apply the law to a particular case, many 
questions must arise in regard to the facts of the case and 
the meaning of the law which is applied to these facts. 
There must, therefore, be a judicial department of govern- 
ment, whose duty it is to interpret the laws and apply them 
in particular instances. This part of the Government's 
work is accomplished by means of the courts. 

86. How the courts protect us. It is the courts that con- 
stitute our strongest protection against injustice. If any 
individual of the community feels that an injury has been 
done him by another member of the community contrary 
to the law, he applies to the courts to determine the matter. 
If he feels that the officers of the government are over- 
stepping their authority and are trampling upon his rights 
and liberties, he goes to the courts with his grievance. If 
a bad member of the community commits a crime, it is the 
courts that examine into the facts and circumstances of the 
case and determine what his punishment shall be in accord- 
ance with the law. Few people pass through life without 
on some occasion finding it necessary to seek the assistance 
or the protection of the courts. 

87. The system of courts in Virginia. As we have just 
seen, the courts of law are the real protectors of our rights 
and liberties. Because of this, it is a fundamental principle 
of justice among the English-speaking people that there 
must be in every community at least one court for the set- 
tlement of these perplexing questions of fact and law. 
That is to say, every man must have this protection within 
his reach. 



Ii8 HOW WE ARE GOVERNED IN VIRGINIA 

The system of courts in Virginia by which this is accom- 
plished is somewhat complicated. There are a number of 
different kinds of courts, each with certain limits to the 
powers that it may exercise. It is unnecessary for us to 
examine in detail the powers, or jurisdiction, as it is 
usually called, of these various courts. It will be sufficient 
for us to get a general idea of the judicial systenr of the 
State. There are in the main four classes of courts : 

1. The Justice's or Police Court. In every county in 
Virginia there are a number of justices of the peace (see 
page 129), whose duty it is to hold courts for the trial of 
petty offenses against the laws of the State and the county. 
In the cities, likewise, there is a similar court usually called 
the police court. These justice's courts constitute the most 
numerous branch of courts in the State. It must be re- 
membered, however, that they have authority to try only 
such petty offenses as are punishable by small fines or 
short terms of imprisonment in jail. They can also deter- 
mine disputes in regard to property and debts where only 
small amounts are involved. In many instances even after 
a case has been decided in these lowest courts of the State, 
the law provides that it may be carried to the next higher 
court, and there be reviewed. 

2. The Circuit Court. Next above the justices's courts 
are a number of courts known as circuit courts. In all 
there are thirty such courts in Virginia. For this purpose 
the whole State is divided into thirty judicial circuits. 
Each circuit consists of a number of counties or a county 
and a city. The court of any circuit is held, as the occasion 
may demand, in this or that county or city of the circuit ; 
and from the fact that it moves from place to place it 
takes its name, the "circuit" court. It is this court which 
has the authority to hear by far the larger number 



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120 HOW WE ARE GOVERNED IN VIRGINIA 

of cases that arise. In cases arising out of disputes over 
property, debts, and the like, the law provides that they 
must involve a certain amount of money in order for them 
to be brought before the circuit court. If a person is 
arrested for an offense against the law, he can be tried in 
the circuit court only when the offense is so serious that it 
may be punished by imprisonment in the penitentiary of 
the State. Thus small cases and trials for petty offenses 
are left to the justice's courts. 

S. The City Courts. In addition to the circuit court, 
every city of ten thousand inhabitants may have an addi- 
tional court known as the corporation court. Those cities 
of the State with as many as thirty thousand inhabitants 
have a number of different courts, each with the power or 
jurisdiction to try cases of a certain kind prescribed by law, 
It is natural that many more cases should arise in large 
cities than in the counties ; and the result is that whenever 
cities have grown to any size the Government recognizes 
the necessity for providing a special and elaborate system 
of city courts. 

Jf. The Supreme Court of Appeals. At the top of the 
system of courts provided for Virginia stands the Supreme 
Court of Appeals. This court has the power to hear cases 
which may have been tried in the circuit courts and the 
various city courts, and which may be carried, in accord- 
ance with the law, to the highest court of the State for a 
last hearing. 

88. The judges and other officers. The justices J s courts 
are presided over by justices of the peace, elected by the 
people of the district in which they serve. All the other 
courts in the State, however, are presided over by judges. 
For each circuit court and for each city court there is one 



HOW THE LAWS ARE APPLIED 121 

judge chosen by the General Assembly for a term of eight 
years. The Supreme Court of Appeals consists of five 
judges chosen by the General Assembly for a term of 
twelve years each. It is provided that the judges in all of 
these courts shall be men trained in the law, either by hav- 
ing previously held a judicial position, or by having prac- 
ticed law for a period of at least five years. It is provided 
also that their salaries shall not be increased or diminished 
during their term of office. This is in order to prevent the 
General Assembly from gaining any control over the 
honesty and impartiality of the judges of the State, by re- 
fusing to continue their salaries. 

You may be surprised to learn that the judges of our courts hold 
office for periods of eight and twelve years while the Governor and 
other officers of the State are elected for only four years. There 
is a very vital reason for this. One of the principles which lie at 
the bottom of, our judicial system is that every man, no matter 
how poor and obscure, shall be equal to any other man when he 
appears before the courts. If our judges were subjected to the 
control of political parties by reason of frequent elections, their 
decisions might sometimes be influenced by their desire for re- 
appointment. The object, therefore, of -choosing the judges for 
long terms is that they may be separated from any control of poli- 
tics, and that they may feel free to interpret the law with abso- 
lute impartiality. 

89. How the law proceeds. You may perhaps wonder 
how one individual proceeds when he feels that it is neces- 
sary for him to call on the courts for assistance in main- 
taining his rights against some other individual. If he 
ascertains that the law is probably in favor of his claim, he 
usually places the matter in the hands of a lawyer, who 
brings it before the proper court at the proper time, and 
in accordance with the regulations prescribed for such pro- 
ceedings. The other party concerned generally employs a 



122 HOW WE ARE GOVERNED IN VIRGINIA 

lawyer to represent him; and the matter is fought out be- 
tween these lawyers in the presence of the court. The 
facts are all heard, the law is interpreted and applied, and 
a decision is rendered. Such a case as this is called a 
civil suit. You must understand that in such a suit no 
person is on trial. 

In case an individual is arrested and accused of some 
crime, he usually employs, or else the Government gives 
him, a lawyer to represent his cause before the court. 
Opposed to this lawyer is an officer known as the common- 
wealth's attorney, who is himself a lawyer representing the 
community. It is his duty to bring out before the court 
all the facts that will help to show the guilt of the prisoner. 
You see, therefore, that we again have two lawyers strug- 
gling with each other in the presence of the court on oppo- 
site sides of the question to be decided. Such a case as 
this, in which a person is being tried for a crime of which 
he is accused, is called a criminal case. In any criminal 
case the Government itself, represented by the common- 
wealth's attorney, is one of the parties concerned. A man 
who has committed a crime has really committed an injury 
against the whole people of the community, and the Gov- 
ernment must punish him if his guilt can be proved. 

90. Trial by jury. You remember that in the beginning 
of our study we discussed the various operations of the 
Government which aim to protect the individual in his life 
and liberty. (See pages 21, 44.) And we mentioned the fact 
that when any member of a community is accused of crime, 
the Government must grant him certain rights in regard to 
his trial. Among these we spoke of his right to a trial by 
jury. What does this mean? It means simply that the 
individual who is called upon to defend his rights or him- 
self in court has in all important cases the right to have a 



HOW THE LAWS ARE APPLIED 123 

decision on the facts of his case rendered by a group of men 
chosen from among his fellow-citizens. This group of men 
usually consists of twelve and is known as a jury. Trial 
by jury arose out of the notion that a man's fellow-citizens 
would be more apt to give him justice than would an officer 
of the Government. Hence, while it is the judge of the 
court who explains and interprets the law for the jury, it is 
the jury that decides upon the facts of the case and renders 
the verdict. ^- 

The right of trial by jury is one of our most sacred, 
rights. We should cherish it and uphold it in every way 
possible. It is true that jury service is sometimes incon- 
venient; it may seriously interfere with a man's business. 
For this reason, many men seek to evade the law which re- 
quires them to serve on juries when they are called upon. 
These very men may some day find themselves at the mercy 
of a jury ; they would then be eager for competent and in- 
telligent jurors. We should look upon jury service as a 
duty that we owe to our community and to our fellowmen. 
We should not let it be said that in our community juries 
are frequently composed of men of no employment and of 
little ability. 

91. The grand jury. In many important cases the law 
provides that before a person can be tried for an offense 
which he is supposed to have committed, he shall be 
indicted by a grand jury. This means that the evidence of 
his guilt shall be presented by the judge to a group of men 
consisting of not less than fifteen nor more than twenty- 
three. If this grand jury finds the evidence sufficient, the 
accused person is formally charged with the crime, or 
indicted, as it is called, and is held for trial. If the evi- 
dence is found to be insufficient, he is dismissed. 



124 H0W WE ARE GOVERNED IN VIRGINIA 

QUESTIONS FOR CLASS DISCUSSION 

1. Suppose a dispute arises between two persons over a debt, how 
is it usually settled? Suppose a man is arrested for stealing, who 
determines his punishment? Why are the courts necessary? How 
do they protect us from injustice? 

2. Have you ever been in a court room? If so, describe it. Do 
you know the names of any justice of the peace in your neighbor- 
hood (or police justice)? Where is his court held? If a man is 
arrested for fighting in your community, before what court would 
he be taken? 

3. If you live in a city, try to find out how many courts there 
are in your city and what they are called. If you live in a county, 
find out where the circuit court sits. Why is it called a circuit 
court ? 

4. Describe the system of courts in Virginia. Why are the judges 
appointed for long terms? Why may not the legislature increase or 
diminish their salaries? 

5. What is the highest court in Virginia? How many judges sit 
in it? How are they appointed and for what term? 

6. Explain how in every case, whether civil or criminal, there 
are lawyers on each side of the question. What is the duty of the 
commonwealth's attorney? Find out, if you can, who is the com- 
monwealth's attorney in your community. 

7. Explain what is meant by jury trial. Why is it a duty to serve 
on juries? How are we protected by the right of trial by jury? 



CHAPTER XIII 

HOW THE COUNTIES ARE GOVERNED 

92. What the county is. Many of us cannot remember 
the first time that we evel\Jieard of counties. In our 
geographies we learned that Virginia is divided into one 
hundred and one counties, each with its own name, and 
every one of us lives in some one of these counties. What 
do we mean then when we speak of a county? As we 
have seen (see page 97), certain matters of interest to the 
people can best be attended to by the different local com- 
munities. And although counties did not originate for 
local purposes, this is the reason why they exist to-day. 

County Government dates back to a very early period in 
the history of England, in fact to a period when there was 
no king at all over the whole of England. When the set- 
tlers came over to America and established the colony of 
Virginia, they simply transplanted to Virginia the county 
form of local Government to which they had been accus- 
tomed in England. With some changes in its form, the 
county still exists among us for purposes of local Govern- 
ment. We shall see as we go on, the place that the 
county occupies in our system of Government. But first 
of all let us see why it was that the colonists adopted this 
kind of Government in preference to any other. 

93. How the geography of Virginia affected our Govern- 
ment. You will doubtless recall that most of those who 
came over to Virginia at the time when the colony was in 
its infancy were attracted by the profits they hoped to make 

125 



126 



HOW WE ARE GOVERNED IN VIRGINIA 



out of the cultivation of tobacco. Many of them obtained 
large grants of land from the crown. When they reached 
the colony, they found that its shores, as you have often 
noticed, were indented by many navigable streams. The 
result was that each of these landowners, or planters, as 
they were called, was able to establish his plantation upon 
a large tract of land bordering on some stream. There he 




The Court -House of Chesterfield County, Virginia 

cultivated tobacco on a large scale and shipped it to Eng- 
land. The vessels of the time, unlike modern vessels, did 
not require very deep water for navigation. They sailed 
up the stream and landed at the planter's private wharf, 
bringing him all sorts of manufactured articles^ such as 
cloth, furniture, building materials, and farming imple- 
ments from the mother country. In exchange for these he 
loaded the vessel with tobacco for sale in England. 



HOW THE COUNTIES ARE GOVERNED 127 

You see, therefore, that Virginia was early split up into 
large plantations, and that the people lived far apart from 
one another. Now this fact had an important influence 
upon the kind of Government that developed in Virginia. 
You will perhaps understand this better if we turn for a 
moment to see what kind of Government developed among 
the New England settlers. 

The people who settled New England came over to this 
country largely that they mi^ht- enjoy religious freedom. 
They came, therefore, in congregations or groups rather 
than as individual adventurers. The climate and the geo- 
graphy of Xew England, unlike Virginia, did not permit 
them to separate and settle on large estates. They built 
their homes close around the church and schoolhouse. 
Under such circumstances it was natural for them to adopt 
a popular or democratic form of Government. All the in- 
habitants of each community met together and decided 
what their laws should be, and who should be their officers, 
This form of local Government still prevails in New Eng- 
land, and in a somewhat different form it has been adopted 
in the West. It is known as township Government, and the 
assembly of the people is called the town meeting. 

Now it must be very evident to you that, with the peo- 
ple scattered widely apart as they were in Virginia, it would 
have been impossible for such a form of Government to 
have arisen. How could the people of a large county 
come together for the purpose of making laws? Instead 
of the township Government, the county form of Govern- 
ment was adopted in Virginia. A county covered a large 
area, including many plantations ; and the people, instead 
of voting directly, chose, representatives to determine all 
matters of local interest and concern. Let us see how the 
county is organized for the purposes of local Government. 



128 HOW WE ARE GOVERNED IN VIRGINIA 

94. What powers the county may exercise. It is impor- 
tant for you to bear in mind that the county may do only 
those things which the Constitution and the legislature of 
the State permit. Ordinarily the county attends to such 
matters as the building of roads and bridges, the assessment 
and collection of taxes, the care of the poor, the preserva- 
tion of the peace by arresting those who violate the laws, 
the quarantining of contagious diseases, and the building of 
schoolhouses, the court-house, and other county buildings. 
These are not all of the duties which fall to the county 
Governments, but they are among the most important. 
Nor are all these things attended to wholly by the counties. 
For instance, the State Government assists the counties in 
the building of roads (see page 68), and it both assists and 
controls the counties materially in educational matters. 

95. The county board of supervisors. Each county is 
divided into a number of districts known as magisterial 
districts. Once every four years, in November, the voting 
people in the district elect a supervisor of the district. 
The supervisors of the several magisterial districts of the 
county constitute together what is known as the county 
board of supervisors. The law gives to this board the 
power to make such rules and regulations as may be neces- 
sary for the county. It provides for the building and re- 
pairing of the roads and bridges, levies taxes for school 
and other purposes, borrows money, and builds the court- 
house, jail, and the poorhouse. Indeed this board has 
general control and direction of the affairs of the county. 
The board must meet at least twice a year, and may come 
together oftener if necessary. 

96. The county officers. In addition to the board of 
supervisors, which may be called the legislative body of the 
county, there are a number of other officers elected by the 



HOW THE COUNTIES ARE GOVERNED 



129 



people for a term of four years, and one, the county clerk, 
for a term of eight years. Let us see what these officers 
are. 

1. The treasurer of the county, as his name implies, is the 
officer who receives all the money due the county, and who 
pays out such amounts of it as he may be empowered by 
law to pay. All the taxes that are collected in the county 
are turned over to him, and he in turn transmits such por- 
tion of these taxes as may be Srate-taxes to the State Treas- 
urer at Richmond. ;2. The sheriff is the officer who has 
charge of the county jail, and whose duty it is to assist in 
preserving the peace by arresting criminals. He attends 
the circuit court when it meets in his county and carries 
out the orders of the court. He is the most important 
executive officer of the county, having many other duties 
laid upon him by law. 3. The commonwealth's attorney is 
the law-officer of the county, whose duty it is to prosecute 
criminals tried before the circuit court. (See page 118.) 
He also assists the board of supervisors and the other 
county officers in the performance of their duties by giving 
them his opinion on questions of the law. If. The county 
clerk is the officer whose duty it is to keep the records of 
the county. It is by means of these records kept by the 
clerk that owners of land in the county establish their 
claims to property. (See page 38.) The clerk also issues 
marriage licenses, and keeps a record of the marriages, 
births, and deaths in the county. 5. The justices of the 
- we have already seen (see page 1 18), are the officers 
who hold the lowest courts in the State. As their name 
indicates, it is their duty to assist in the preservation of 
peace. Three justices are elected in each magisterial dis- 
trict. 6. The constable's chief duty is to arrest persons 
accused of violating the laws and otherwise to assist in 



130 



HOW WE ARE GOVERNED IN VIRGINIA 



preserving order. 7. The commissioner of revenue for 
each magisterial district is the officer whose duty it is to 
make out the lists of personal property for taxation and 
to collect the taxes. There are also in every county a 
surveyor, a superintendent of the poor, one or more coroners, 
land assessors, and other minor officers, whose duties are 
prescribed by law. These assist in various ways in carry- 
ing out the scheme of county Government. 

97. The importance of county history. There is scarcely 
a county in Virginia that has not produced its great men. 
Some of these men are only of local reputation ; in many 
cases they have played important roles in the history of 
Virginia and the nation. Moreover, many counties have 
been the scenes of famous battles and other important inci- 
dents of our history. It ought to be our pride to know of 
these things. We should be eager to learn something of 
the history of our county and the share it has had in the 
history of the State. We should cherish the names of our 
great men and perpetuate their memory. Would it not be 
well if the public schools in every community were named 
after the great men of the locality ? 

QUESTIONS FOR CLASS DISCUSSION 

To the Teacher. The teacher of rural schools should, if possible, 
elaborate the outline of county government contained in this chapter, 
seeking especially to localize the pupil's interest in the government 
of his own county. The following meager questions will naturally 
arouse more interest and discussion among county pupils than 
among city pupils. The exact opposite may be said of the following 
chapter. 

1. In what county do you live? Describe its situation in the 
State. Try to find out something about its history : when was 
it settled, when did it become a county, how did it receive its name? 

2. Explain how geographical conditions in Virginia gave rise to 



HOW THE COUNTIES ARE GOVERNED 131 

the county form of local Government. What is meant by town- 
ship Government? Where did it flourish and why? Why did it 
not develop in Virginia? 

3. What are some of the powers which your county Government 
exercises? How is the county board of supervisors formed? 
What are its powers? What magisterial district do you live in? 
Find out who your district supervisor is. When was he elected? 
How long has he yet to serve? How often must the board meet? 

4. Find out. if you can. who is the present treasurer of your 
county. The sheriff; commonwealth^ attorney; clerk. How many 
justices of the peace are there in your district? Constables? Com- 
missioners of revenue? How are these various officers chosen? 
What is their term of office? Which one serves for eight years?' 

5. What great men has your community produced? Which of 
them were of local, which of State, which of national reputation? 
What do you know of their lives? Are their names commemorated 
in any way in your community? Can you think of some simple 
ways by which they might be commemorated? 

6. What important incidents of history have taken place in your 
community' Are these incidents commemorated? How' 



CHAPTER XIV 

HOW THE CITIES ARE GOVERNED 

98. The growth of cities in Virginia. Sometimes you 
have perhaps wondered why no very large city has de- 
veloped in Virginia. In other parts of the United States 
cities have in some cases grown to enormous proportions 
in a comparatively short time. In 1830, Chicago was 
almost a wilderness, while Richmond had a population of 
16,060. To-day, the population of Chicago is approaching 
two millions, while that of Richmond is only in the neigh- 
borhood of one hundred thousand. How can we account 
for this slow development of cities in Virginia and the rest 
of the South ? 

We have already noted the fact that Virginia was settled 
in large plantations and that society was divided into three- 
classes with the slaves at the bottom. (See page 52.) 
Under the direction of the white population these slaves 
made good farm laborers. They were not trained, however, 
for labor of a higher character; and while slavery existed, 
no large number of them could have been taught to run the 
complicated machinery used in manufacturing. As you 
know, people in cities do not expect to earn their living by 
farming. They support themselves by manufacturing and 
trading. It was impossible for the people of Virginia to 
establish large cities because the slaves could not profitably 
be employed in manufacturing industries. You see, there- 
fore, how it was that slavery prevented the development of 
manufactures in the South and the consequent growth of 

132 



HOW THE CITIES ARE GOVERNED 



133 



cities. Since the emancipation of the slaves, cities m Vir- 
ginia, as well as in the rest of the South, have begun to 
grow more rapidly than formerly. But the whole South 
has been retarded in this development by reason of the ter- 
rible destruction that resulted from the War between the 
States. Moreover, it takes time to change a considerable 
portion of the population from agricultural to manufactur- 
ing pursuits. 

In recent years cities have be£n_d£veloping very rapidly 
in Virginia. The population of Richmond increased 33 
per cent between 1880 and 1900, that of Norfolk 112 per 
cent. Newport Xews in 1890 had a population of 4,449; 
in 1900 it had increased to 19,635. The population of the 
city of Roanoke has perhaps increased more rapidly in the 
last ten years than that of any other city in the State. 

99. City problems. In the earlier part of our study we 
noticed that city Governments undertake many things for 
the people of city communities that are unnecessary in 
rural communities. It is hardly needful to explain why 
this should be the case. Where so many people live close 
to one another, they are forced to use the same streets, the 
same trolley cars, the same facilities for lighting their 
houses and getting water, as well as many other thine- i" 1 - 
common. The Government must provide for the main- 
tenance of these things for the common welfare of all. 

As a result of these conditions, it has been found neces- 
sary to provide for the cities a different form of Govern- 
ment from that which is given to the counties. City Gov- 
ernments must be so organized that the cities can provide 
in many ways for the health, the welfare, and the happiness 
of their inhabitants. Streets must be laid out, paved, and 
kept clean. Parks must be provided, in order that the city 
may be beautified, and that its inhabitants may have con- 



134 



HOW WE ARE GOVERNED IN VIRGINIA 



venient places for recreation. The police force must be 
maintained for the protection of life and property and for 
the enforcement of the laws. The streets must be lighted, 
water must be provided, fire departments maintained, a 




Congested Traffic in a City Street 

This street is so crowded with wagons and trucks that traffic is frequently 

blocked. Observe the obstructions placed along the sidewalks. 

system of sewerage installed ; schoolhouses, city halls, 
court-houses, jails, and poorhouses must be built. These 
and many other things the city must undertake. And as 
you may imagine, all these undertakings call for a compli- 



HOW THE CITIES ARE GOVERNED 



135 



cated system of government and many officers. Let us see 
in a general way how the cities of Virginia are governed. 

100. What is meant by the city charter. Before the 
adoption of our present Constitution, the legislature was 
accustomed to grant to every city of the State a special 
charter. Each of these charters was a document providing 
in detail how the city Government should be organized, 
how the city laws should be made, the names and duties of 
its officers, and the powers whicfT^the city might exercise. 
Under these charters the form of Government in one city 
was in many respects quite different from that in another 
city, since the charters granted by the legislature were not 
always identical. By the terms of the Constitution of 1902, 
the legislature is restricted in its power to issue special 
charters to cities. The laws which the legislature now 
makes for cities must usually be general laws — that is, they 
must apply to all cities alike. Charters may still be 
granted ; but because of these general laws, they must be 
similar in form. Existing cities, however, were permitted 
to retain their old charters in so far as they did not conflict 
with the Constitution itself. 

The Constitution provides somewhat in detail for the 
organization and Government of cities. In the first place, 
it provides that no community shall become a city which 
has not at least five thousand inhabitants. In the working 
out of the plan of the city Government, as you will notice, 
there is an organization which corresponds very closely to 
the organization of the State Government which we have 
been studying. There is a law-making body, a group of 
executive officers, and in some cases special' city courts. 

101. How the city laws are made. City laws are known 
as ordinances. They are passed by the law-making body of 
the city under the powers granted by the Constitution and 



136 HOW WE ARE GOVERNED IN VIRGINIA 

the legislature. They relate, of course, only to the local 
affairs of the city. (See page 97.) Just as the law-making 
body of the State consists of two houses, so the law-making 
body of the city, or city council, as it is called, is divided 
into two houses. The lower and larger of these houses is 
known as the common council. The upper house is usually 
called the board of aldermen. For the purpose of electing 
these councilmen" and aldermen, the city is divided into 
wards having as nearly as possible an equal number of in- 
habitants. The inhabitants of each ward are entitled to 
elect a certain number of councilmen and a fewer number 
of aldermen. In cities of less than ten thousand inhabi- 
tants, the passing of ordinances is not so important a mat- 
ter as it is in larger cities. The Constitution, therefore, 
provides that such cities may have a law-making body con- 
sisting of only one chamber. 

In order that a resolution may become an ordinance of 
the city, it must go through a process very similar to that 
of a resolution offered in the General Assembly. (See 
page 102.) It is frequently referred to an appropriate com- 
mittee, and it must in every case pass both the lower and 
upper branch of the council. It is then sent to the 
mayor for his signature. If the mayor vetoes the resolu- 
tion, it cannot become an ordinance except by a majority 
vote of two-thirds of the members of both chambers. 

One of the most important duties that fall to the city 
council is the determining of what local taxes are to be 
raised for the purpose of carrying on the many operations 
of the city Government. And after this money has come 
into the city treasury, it is the duty of the council to appor- 
tion it among the various departments of the Government. 
There are many other important duties which these city 
law-makers are called upon to exercise. 



HOW THE CITIES ARE GOVERNED 



137 



Councilmen and aldermen are not paid for their services 
to the city. They are supposed to be public-spirited men 
who are willing to give a portion of their time to the man- 
agement of the city's affairs. Unfortunately they are not 
always either public-spirited or honest. Shrew^d and un- 
principled politicians have sometimes been elected to city 
councils ; they have used their positions for their own profit 
without regard to the city's interests. You can under- 
stand, therefore, how important it Vfor the voting people 
of every city to inform themselves in regard to those men 
who become candidates for the city council. It is the duty 
also of the best men of the community, the men who have 
made a success of life by honest means, the high-minded 
and well-informed men, to be willing to give a portion of 
their time, whenever it is possible, to assist in the Govern- 
ment of the city. 

102. The mayor and other executive officers of the city. 
The position of the mayor in the city corresponds some- 
what to that of the Governor in the State. He is the chief 
executive officer of the city and has many important duties 
and powers. As we have just seen, he has the power to 
veto all the ordinances passed by the city council. In 
addition to this, it is his duty to see that the other officers 
of the city and the departments of the city Government, 
like the fire department and the police department, attend 
properly to the duties laid upon them by law. And like 
the Governor (see page no), he has the power to examine 
the books and records of the other city officers. In case 
he finds an officer negligent in his duty, he suspends 
him from office. You see, therefore, that the office of 
mayor in olir cities is a most important one. It should be 
filled only by a high-minded, upright, and well qualified 
man. 



138 



HOW WE ARE GOVERNED IN VIRGINIA 



The mayor is elected by the voters of the city for a term 
of four years. In most cities the people elect for the same 
term as the mayor a city treasurer, commonwealth's attorney, 
a tax collector, and city sergeant. In addition to these 





!,s, 




The City Hall, Richmond, Virginia 
One of the handsomest Government buildings in the South. 

officers elected by the people, the city council chooses other 
executive officers, such as the chief of the fire department, 
the chief of the police department, and the city engineer. 
The council usually chooses also the members of cer- 



HOW THE CITIES ARE GOVERNED 139 

tain boards and commissions which direct the work of 
various departments of the city Government. Prominent 
among these are the school board, the police commission, 
and the fire commission. It is not necessary for us to 
examine in detail the duties of these various officers 
and boards. It is sufficient for us to know that each of 
them fills a very necessary place in the working out of the 
city Government. 

You must bear in mind that every^city in Virginia that 
existed before the adoption of our present Constitution has 
a special charter outlining its form of Government. These 
charters vary ; all cities therefore, do not have exactly the 
same officers, nor do they exercise exactly the same powers. 

103. Difference between cities and towns. Since cities 
are usually larger than towns, it is natural that they should 
have a more complicated form of Government. Towns are 
those communities in Virginia which have less than five 
thousand inhabitants, and which, at the same time, have 
been granted a distinct local Government. Of course 
every city and town is situated in some county. Over the 
cities the county has no control. The county board of 
supervisors cannot make regulations for any city within 
the county, nor do the county officers have any power 
within the city. Towns are permitted to have a simple 
form of Government for their local needs and to raise taxes 
for local purposes. They have a town council, a town 
mayor, and other executive officers. But they are also 
controlled by the county to some extent. When county 
taxes are levied, for instance, these taxes are collected in 
the towns as well as in the rural districts. This is the 
most important distinction between towns and small cities ; 
towns are subjected to some control by the county, while 
cities are not. 



140 HOW WE ARE GOVERNED IN VIRGINIA 



QUESTIONS FOR CLASS DISCUSSION 

1. Try to find out the population of your city, or of the nearest 
city to you. Is its population said to be increasing? Can you see 
any evidences of the increase, such as the building of new resi- 
dences or business houses? What natural advantages has your 
city? What attracts people to it? 

2. Mention some of the things that city Governments provide that 
are not undertaken by county Governments. Why does this differ- 
ence exist? Explain, then, why the city Government differs in 
form from that of the county. 

3. Explain what is meant by a city charter. When were special 
charters granted to Virginia cities? Can the legislature grant a 
special charter today? What is meant by "general" city laws? 

4. How does a resolution become an ordinance? 

5. How is the city council organized? Find out, if you can, how 
many councilmen and aldermen there are in your city (or the 
nearest city to you). How many are chosen from each ward? 
How are they chosen? When are they next chosen? How long 
do they serve? How many wards- has your city? 

6. Find out who appoints firemen, policemen, street-cleaners in 
your city. 

7. Mention all the officers of the city that you know, and find out 
how each is appointed. How are all the chief officers chosen? 

8. What should be the qualifications of a councilman or alderman? 
What is the duty of the people in selecting these officers? W r hat 
compensation does a good councilman get for his services? 

9. If you live in a town, tell 'some of the things that your town 
Government undertakes. What officers does it have? How many 
members are there in the town council? What is the chief differ- 
ence between towns and small cities? 

10. Mention the names of all the present officers of your city or 
town that you can think of. 



CHAPTER XV 

WHO TAKES PART IN THE GOVERNMENT 

104. Why the people of Virginia do not make laws 
directly. The simplest and most direct method of organiz- 
ing the Government of a community is that in which the 
whole population of the community meets to make laws 
and choose officers. This form of Government is illus- 
trated in the Xew England town meeting (see page 127) and 
is called democratic — a word which means Government by 
the people. Surely it is not difficult for you to see, how- 
ever, that where county Government exists, as it does in 
Virginia, it is impossible for the whole people to come 
together in a single meeting to determine what their laws 
shall be. So also in the populous cities such a form of 
government would be impossible, for no hall could be 
found large enough to hold the whole population of the 
city ; and if everybody in the city were allowed freely to 
express his own ideas upon each question that arose, cer- 
tainly little would be accomplished. If such a form of 
Government is not practicable in counties and cities, it is 
all the more impossible when it comes to making laws for 
the whole State. Imagine the difficulty of attempting to 
assemble all the people of the State of Virginia in one place 
to make laws ! 

105. What we mean by representative Government. The 
people in Virginia, as in the other States of the Union, have 
solved the difficulty by what we call representative govern- 
ment. Instead of making laws directly themselves, the 

141 



142 HOW WE ARE GOVERNED IN VIRGINIA 

people choose representatives to do this for them. That is 
why there is in each county a group of representatives 
known as the board of supervisors ; and in each city, a city 
council ; and for the State as a whole, a General Assembly. 
Each of these representative bodies has the power to make 
regulations for the people. Not only do the people choose 
their law-makers in this way, but, as we have seen, they 
also designate what officers are to execute these laws and 
what officers are to interpret them. This they accomplish 
either by direct election, as in the case of the Governor 
and many other officers, or by giving their representatives 
the power to choose other officers, as in the case of the 
judges. (See page 121.) 

106. Why all of us do not share in the Government. Now 
the question arises : does every person in each community 
of Virginia have an equal share in choosing these repre- 
sentatives? In other words, does everybody in Virginia 
have the right to vote? For a great many reasons this is 
not the case ; and some of them you can easily understand. 
It would not be expected, for instance, that the children of 
any community should have a share in selecting the 
officers of the Government. Nor are the women in Vir- 
ginia permitted to vote at elections, although some of the 
States of the Union give them this right. Again, foreign- 
ers who have not yet become citizens of the United States, 
and citizens of other States, who may happen to be tem- 
porarily in Virginia at the time of an election, are not per- 
mitted to vote. But these are not the only classes ex- 
cluded from a share in the Government. 

It is a very unfortunate fact that there are grown men 
111 Virginia w T ho cannot read and write. This is a condi- 
tion of affairs which we are rapidly overcoming by means 
of the efficient system of public education which is now 



WHO TAKES PART IN THE GOVERNMENT 143 

provided for the children of Virginia. Sometimes these 
illiterate people .have only themselves to blame for their 
ignorance ; and sometimes they have been pitifully unfor- 
tunate. But in any case the more intelligent people have 
thought that a man who cannot even read and write, and 
who must, in consequence, be intensely ignorant of every- 
thing that is going on in the world, is not fit to help in 
choosing officers for the conduct ot the Government. The 
Constitution lays down certain qualifications that a man 
must have before he can be allowed to vote. Let us see 
what these qualifications are. 

107. Qualifications for those who vote. Perhaps it will be 
well for us to classify the several qualifications which a man 
must possess in order to vote at elections in Virginia. 

1. Age, sex, and citizenship. First of all, a person desiring 
to vote must be a man who is a citizen of the United States 
(that is, one who owes no allegiance to any foreign Govern- 
ment), and who has reached the age of twenty-one years. 

2. Residence. It is required also that he shall have resided 
in Virginia for two years, and in the particular county, 
town, or city in which he offers to vote, for one year. For 
voting purposes the communities are 'divided into wards 
and precincts ; and the law provides that a man offering to 
vote shall have resided in his precinct for at least thirty 
days. 3. Registration. Suppose a man who is not known 
in a particular community presents himself on the morning 
of an election and desires to cast his vote. It might be 
very difficult for the officers who have the election in charge 
to find out whether he really possessed the qualifications 
necessary for a voter. The Constitution therefore provides 
that the voting places, or polls as they are called, shall be 
opened for registration on certain days prior to the election. 
During this period, any person desiring to vote at the 



144 H0W WE ARE GOVERNED IN VIRGINIA 

election must present himself, prove his qualifications, and 
have his name properly enrolled upon the registration 
books. On the election day only those are permitted to vote 
whose names are to be found in these books. J+. The poll- 
tax. Every male resident of the State over twenty-one 
years of age is required to pay, under the present law, a 
yearly poll tax of $1.50. No man can vote at any election 
who has not paid all the poll taxes assessed against him for 
three years previous to the election, but old soldiers are 
excepted from this provision. 5. Education. When a 
man presents himself for registration, he is required to make 
his application in his own handwriting. This qualification 
is laid down in order that votes shall be cast only by those 
men who have sufficient education to enable them at least 
to write. 

These qualifications for voters were laid down in the Constitution 
of 1902, and their terms are strictly enforced. Previous to this 
time the qualifications were less rigid., and the officers were some- 
what lax in enforcing them. The result of this change has been 
that the number of voting people in the State has been greatly re- 
duced in the last few years. While this is in some respects unfor- 
tunate, yet it has decided advantages. In the first place, it makes 
the vote of the people a much more intelligent one., because the 
privilege is granted only to those who have these elementary 
qualifications. In the second place, it gives those who at 
present do not possess the necessary qualifications something to strive 
for. In one way or another, you see, a man must show that he is 
sincerely interested in the Government before he is permitted to 
vote. These qualifications help to shut out the vote of that class of 
people who never think about the affairs of the Government^ until 
the morning of election, and then go to the polls without any idea 
of how they ought to vote. 

108. Places of election. As we have already seen, every 
county is divided into magisterial districts and every city 



WHO TAKES PART IN THE GOVERNMENT 



145 



into wards. Usually these districts or wards are also 
divided into precincts. In each precinct there is one place 
at which votes may be cast at any election. These voting 
places are usually advertised so that every voter may know 
where he must go to register and later to cast his vote. In 
charge of these places are certain officers of election 
appointed in accordance with the law. These officers first 
examine the books and determine whether a person desir- 
ing to vote is properly registered^- If his registration 
proves to be satisfactory, they then permit him to cast his 
vote. 

109. How the votes are cast. In the early days of our 
history it was the custom, when voters went to the polls, 
to read them the names of the candidates for office and to 
ask them which candidate they desired to vote for. There- 
upon the voter would call the name of the candidate of his 
choice. Under such a system everybody knew how every- 
body else voted. The result was that men could not always 
vote with independence, because of what other people 
might think of them. They might be made to suffer in 
some way for voting as they thought best. 

Today, however, we have a wholly different system. It 
is usually impossible for anybody to know how anybody 
else votes. When a person goes to the polls, he is given a 
slip of paper called a ballot with the names of the different 
candidates printed on it. He then retires, usually to a 
booth where no one else is permitted, and with a pencil he 
draws a line through the names of those for whom he does 
not desire to vote. He folds his ballot and sees that it 
is deposited in a sealed ballot box. None of these ballots 
are examined until the election is closed. You see, there- 
fore, that it is impossible for one voter to tell how any 
other voter has cast his ballot. 



146 HOW WE ARE GOVERNED IiN VIRGINIA 

The election usually lasts for one day, from sunrise to sunset. • 
At its close the ballot boxes are opened and the ballots counted. 
The count, or return as it is called, is then sent to the county board 
or city board appointed for that purpose, and these boards add up 
the returns from the various voting precincts. In case the election 
is for State officers, these local boards send their returns to the 
Board of State Canvassers, who add the returns for the whole State 
and announce the result of the election. 

110. Our duty toward the Government. There was a 
time in the early history of our country when every man of 
intelligence and culture looked upon it as a duty and a 
privilege to take some active part in the Government. 
Nearly all the truly great men were politicians. Govern- 
ment and politics was the field in which any ambitious 
young man sought to make a name for himself. Today 
the attitude which most men assume toward politics is 
quite different. Many noble men think it beneath them 
"to dabble in politics. " In consequence, they sometimes 
permit the affairs of the Government to be directed by, low 
political bosses and shrewd schemers who have only their 
own interests at heart. Nothing can be more hurtful to 
any community than this attitude which many good men 
assume. Of course, today it is impossible for every man 
to enter politics. It is not even desirable. But every man 
should be interested in all the undertakings of the Govern- 
ment, and this means that he should be interested in 
politics. 

He should keep himself, through the newspapers at least, 
thoroughly in touch with what is going on. He should 
try to learn which of two men desiring a particular office is 
the more honest and the more capable. He should lend 
his influence in private conversation, and if need be in 
public, to keep bad men out of office. In every way possi- 
ble he should further the best interests of his community 



WHO TAKES PART IN THE GOVERNMENT 



H7 



through the Government. Xot only this, but the best men 
of the community should not hold themselves aloof from 
the service of the Government. You may perhaps think 
that there are usually plenty of men desiring office. As a 
matter of fact, this is true ; but frequently none of them are 
the right sort of men for public office, and it is sometimes 
difficult to get better men to see that it is their duty to 
serve. The great hope of any State is that its more intelli- 
gent men will be wide awake to every movement which 
concerns the welfare of their community and State, and 
that whenever it is possible they will use their influence 
and give their services to the cause of good Government. 

We should all feel that the Government is a part of us. 
It undertakes to do for us many things which we cannot do 
for ourselves — that is to say, the whole people of any com- 
munity, acting together through the Government, under- 
takes to do these things. If then, the good people and the 
intelligent people of the community refuse to take part in 
the Government, how can we hope that the best interests of 
the whole community will be served? 

QUESTIONS FOR CLASS DISCUSSION 

1. What do we mean by democratic Government ? Would it be 
possible in your community for the people to make their laws 
directly? How are the laws made? Who makes the laws for the 
whole State? What kind of Government do we call this? Why? 

2. Explain how a man shares in the Government by voting. Why 
do not children have this right? Women? Foreigners? Citizens 
of other States? Insane people? 

3. Why does the Constitution require that a voter shall be able to 
write? Should an illiterate man be intrusted to hold office? To 
choose officers? Why? 

4. Mention all the qualifications for voters in Virginia. Take 
each of these qualifications separately, and tell whether you think it 
is necessary or unnecessary, andfwhy. 



148 HOW WE ARE GOVERNED IN VIRGINIA 

5- Find out, if you can, how many precincts there are in your 
district or ward. In what precinct do you live? Find out where 
the voting' place of your precinct was located at the last election. 

6. Explain the old method of voting. Explain how the votes are 
cast today. What was accomplished by the change from the old 
method? What is the ballot? The ballot box? 

7. What is meant by registration? Why is it necessary? 

8. Explain how it is the duty of every man to be interested in 
politics. To whom does the Government belong? Explain how the 
Government is a part of us. What is our duty toward it? How 
will we suffer if we fail in this duty? 



CHAPTER XVI 

POLITICAL PARTIES 

111. What political parties are, All of you have doubt- 
less heard of political parties — ths Democratic Party and 
the Republican Party, for instance. What do we mean by 
political parties, and how did they come to be formed? 
Political parties have existed in the United States almost 
from the beginning of our history as a nation. In Presi- 
dent Washington's administration the people of the country 
began to divide into two great classes according as they 
believed that the national Government should rxercise < 
powers under the newly adopted Constitution, or that it 
should exercise only those powers that were expressly 
granted to it. These classes were known as political par- 
ties and were called at first Federalists and Anti-federalists. 
From that day to this, political parties have existed in the 
United States. Xew parties have arisen and died; old par- 
ties have changed their names, or retaining their names, 
have changed their policies; but on questions of politics, 
the people have always been divided into parties. 

Indeed, wherever the people share in the Governmenl 
a country, parties are sure to spring up. Those people 
believe that the Government should do this or that thing 
must act together; and those who oppose them must also 
act together. In this acting together political parties 
originate. 

We sometimes hear a man of one party vigorously de- 
nounce the other party; and sometimes, too. we hear men 

i49 



150 HOW WE ARE GOVERNED IN VIRGINIA 

regret that there are any parties at all. But parties are 
invaluable aids to good Government. They watch each 
other closely. If a party in control of the Government 
fails to make wise laws, or to choose good officers, the 
other party will surely find it out, and perhaps at the next 
election will succeed in defeating the party in power. 
Parties help to keep alive our active interest in the affairs 
of Government and exert a controlling influence over the 
action of our law-makers and officers. 

112. How parties are organized. If a party is well organ- 
ized, it can more easily and more successfully get its can- 
didates into office. This organization is accomplished by 
means of committees. In every party there is a State com- 
mittee having general control over the affairs of the party, 
and in addition there are local committees in the different 
counties and cities of the State. These committees arrange 
for political meetings and for addresses to be delivered by 
party leaders and candidates for office. They stir up gen- 
eral interest in the election and in the affairs of the Govern- 
ment, and seek to draw out as large a vote for their own 
party as possible. They also determine many important 
questions in regard to the method of choosing candidates. 
You must not think, however, that these party committees 
are a part of the Government. Political parties are merely 
organizations of the people for the purpose of controlling 
the Government ; they are not a part of the Government. 

113. Party conventions and primary elections. Suppose 
that one political party in the State has many more voters 
than another party; and suppose that in the larger party 
there are many candidates seeking, for instance, the office 
of Governor, while in the smaller party there is only one 
candidate. The larger party would probably divide its 
vote among the various candidates. You can readily see 



POLITICAL PARTIES 



mi 



that this might cause the candidate of the smaller party, 
receiving the whole of his party vote, to be elected. Thus 
in the table below, candidate D would be elected over A, 
B. and C, although his party cast only half as many votes 
as the other. 



Larger 
Party 



Vote for 
i Candidate 
A 
30,000 



Vote for 

Candid 

40,000 



■ti 



Vote for 

Candidate 

C 

50,000 



Total 
Vote 

120,000 



Smaller 
Party 



Vote for 

Candidate 

D 

60,000 



Total 
Vote 

60,000 



In order that the party vote may not be wasted in this 
manner, it is usually necessary to choose the party candi- 
dates for office before the election comes up. If one party 
is small as compared with the other, it accomplishes this by 
means of a party convention. If the election is for State 
officers, this convention is called by the State party com- 
mittee and is composed of delegates from the various com- 
munities of the State. 

When the party is large, however, candidates are usually 
chosen by means of primary elections. A primary election 
is an election held by the party for the purpose of nomi- 
nating the candidates for office which the party desires to 
support at the general election which follows. You must 
bear in mind that a primary election is not really an election 
at all. It is only a nomination by the party. For instance, 
a certain man may be elected at the primary as the Demo- 
cratic candidate for Governor. This means only that the 
members of the Democratic Partv will vote for him in the 



i52 



HOW WE ARE GOVERNED IN VIRGINIA 



general election held a few months later, when he must 
stand against the Republican, the Prohibitionist, and per- 
haps other party candidates. 

In any party primary the voters of the other party are 
not supposed to take part. Moreover, no one can vote 
unless he is qualified to vote at the next general election. 
(See page 143.) 

114. Local nominations. In local elections — that is, 
county, town, and city elections — the local party committee 
usually decides whether candidates shall be chosen by a 
local convention or at a primary election. A man becomes 
a candidate for the party nomination by announcing his 
intention to the committee, and by paying a fee to assist in 
defraying the expenses of the primary. 

QUESTIONS FOR CLASS DISCUSSION 

1. Try to find out which political party is the stronger in your 
community. Are most of your county or city officers Democrats 
or Republicans? Were they nominated for office at a primary? 
Were they nominated by a convention? If not, why not? 

2. To what political party does the present Governor and the 
other State officers belong? How were these officers nominated? 
Explain why the primary election was necessary for their nomina- 
tion. Explain, then, what you mean by a primary election. 

3. Who may vote at a primary election? Is the primary really 
an election at all? 

4. How do political parties help to create good Government? 
Are they a part of the Government? 

5. Explain how political parties are organized. Why is it neces- 
sary for them to organize ? What powers and duties have the party 
committees? Find out, if you can, what party committees there are 
in your community. 

6. Explain why it is necessary for parties to choose candidates 
before the election. What would be the probable result if they did 
not do so? 



CHAPTER XVII 

VIRGINIA AXD THE XATIOX 

In the preceding chapters we have seen, first of all what 
the Government in Virginia does toVassist the people living* 
in the various communities of the State. In the second 
place, we have seen something of how the Government is 
organized for the accomplishment of thes.e purposes, and 
through what officers. State and local, it operates. 

You must not think, however, that the State, and the 
county or city Government under which you live are the 
only Governments to which you owe obedience. Virginia, 
as you know, is one of forty-six States which together make 
up the whole United States. Over all these States there is 
one national government, with its seat at Washington, 
which makes laws and has officers to execute and interpret 
them throughout the entire Union. 

The United States Government, or the national Govern- 
ment, as we call it. also has its Constitution, in which are 
kid down the powers that this Government may lawfully 
exercise. Xo State can interfere with the national Govern- 
ment in the exercise of its powers, nor can the national 
Government exercise any of the powers reserved to the 
States. 

In general we may say that the United States Constitu- 
tion gives to the national Government the right to exercise 
only those powers which are of concern to the whole people 
of this country. Among these powers are the regula- 
tion of foreign affairs, the making of treaties, the regula- 

153 



154 HOW WE ARE GOVERNED IN VIRGINIA 

tion of foreign commerce, of commerce between States, of 
affairs with the Indians, and the maintenance of an army 
and navy. Over none of these affairs has the State of Vir- 
ginia any power whatever. 

Yet the State helps in the carrying on of the national 
Government in a number of ways. For instance, the 
people of the States elect Congressmen for the national 
legislature, and the State legislatures choose the national 
Senators. The people of the several States also elect the 
President of the United States. 

It is not the purpose of our study here to inquire into the 
powers, the organization, and the operation of the national 
Government. This will be reserved for your later study. 

It is true that the Government of our State and commu- 
nity comes in many ways closer to us than the Government 
of the nation. It undertakes to do for us so many more 
personal things — things that we see about us every day. 
But while we as Virginians should cherish a loyalty and 
devotion to our noble State, we should bear in mind that we 
are also citizens of the United States ; and we should take 
pride in rendering a loyal patriotism to the nation of which 
we are a part. 



VIRGINIA AXD THE NATION 



155 



INDEX 



To be supplied 



ArK 7 U08 



./ 



